Original Intent: The Courts, the Constitution, and Religion

by David Barton

  154. Samuel Adams, Writings, Vol. I, p. 269, “Vindex,” December 19, 1768.

  155. William Livingston, The Papers of William Livingston (Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, 1979), Vol. I, p. 161, address from John Hart, October 5, 1776.

  156. John Dickinson, The Political Writings of John Dickinson (Wilmington: Bonsal and Niles, 1801), Vol. I, p. 111.

  157. Witherspoon, Works (1815), Vol. IV, p. 270, “Sermon Delivered at Public Thanksgiving After Peace.”

  158. William Jay, The Life of John Jay: With Selections From His Correspondence and Miscellaneous Papers (New York: J. & J. Harper, 1833), Vol. I, pp. 457-458, to the Committee of the Corportaion of the City of New York, June 29, 1826.

  159. James D. Richardson, A Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Presidents, 1789-1897 (Published by Authority of Congress, 1899), Vol. I, p. 561, March 4, 1815.

  160. Washington, Writings (1932), Vol. XXXV, p. 416, to the Clergy of Different Denominations Residing in and Near the City of Philadelphia, March 3, 1797.

  161. John Adams, Works, Vol. IX, p. 229, to the Officers of the First Brigade of the Third Division of the Militia of Massachusetts, October 11, 1798.

  162. County of Allegheny v. ACLU, 492 U.S. 573, 677 (1989) (Kennedy, J., concurring in part and dissenting in part).

  163. Wallace v. Jaffree, 472 U.S. 38, 106 (1984) (Rehnquist, J., dissenting).

  164. Lee v. Weisman, 505 U.S. 577, 632 (1992), (Scalia, J., dissenting).

  165. Lee at 467.

  166. Lee at 492 (Blackman, J., concurring).

  167. Washington, Writings (1838), Vol. XII, p. 119, proclamation for a National Thanksgiving, October 3, 1789.

  168. John Adams, Works, Vol. IX, p. 169, proclamation for a National Thanksgiving, March 23, 1798.

  169. Richardson, Compilation, Vol. I, p. 532, July 23, 1813.

  170. Samuel Adams, By the Governor. A Proclamation for a Day of Public Fasting, Humiliation, and Prayer (Printed at the State Press: Adams and Larkin, 1795).

  171. James Madison, The Papers of James Madison, Henry D. Gilpin, editor (Washington, DC: Langtree & O’Sullivan, 1840), Vol. II, pp. 984-986. June 28, 1787.

  172. Speeches of the … Governors … of New York, p. 80, George Clinton, January 31, 1804.

  173. Jonathan Trumbull, By His Excellency Jonathan Trumbull, Esq. Governor and Commander in Chief In and Over the State of Connecticut. A Proclamation (Hudson and Goodwin, 1807).

  174. Boudinot, Life & Public Service, Vol. I, p. 21, to the First Provincial Congress of New Jersey.

  175. Speeches of the … Governors … of New York, p. 126, Daniel Tompkins, January 25, 1814.

  176. Lee v. Weisman, 505 U.S. 577, 509 (1992) (Scalia, J., dissenting).

  177. Lee at 505-506 (Souter, J., concurring).

  178. Lee at 510-511, 516 (Scalia, J., dissenting).

  179. Lee at 484.

  180. Lee at 509, 514 (Scalia, J., dissenting).

  181. Lee at 519 (Scalia, J., dissenting).

  182. Lee at 518 (Scalia, J., dissenting).

  183. Lee v. Weisman, 728 F. Supp. 68, 75 (D.C. RI 1990).

  184. Thomas Jefferson, Memoir, Correspondence, and Miscellanies, Thomas Jefferson Randolph, editor (Boston: Gray and Bowen, 1830), Vol. IV, p. 317, to Spencer Roane, September 6, 1819.

  Chapter 9 Ignoring Original Intent

  1. Abington v. Schempp, 374 U.S. 203, 220-221 (1963).

  2. Abington at 203.

  3. Epperson v. Arkansas, 393 U.S. 97 (1968).

  4. Epperson at 97.

  5. Scopes v. State, 289 S.W. 363 (Tenn. 1927).

  6. Board of Education of Central School District v. Allen, 392 U.S. 236 (1968).

  7. Lemon v. Kurtzman, 403 U.S. 602 (1971).

  8. Lemon at 602.

  9. Lemon at 602.

  10. Levitt v. Committee for Public Education, 413 U.S. 472, 474 (1973).

  11. Committee for Public Education v. Nyquist, 413 U.S. 756 (1973).

  12. Stone v. Graham, 449 U.S. 39 (1980).

  13. Marsh v. Chambers, 463 U.S. 783 (1983).

  14. Lynch v. Donnelly, 465 U.S. 668 (1984).

  15. Wallace v. Jaffree, 472 U.S. 38 (1985).

  16. Edwards v. Aguillard, 482 U.S. 578 (1987).

  17. Edwards at 578.

  18. County of Allegheny v. ACLU, 492 U.S. 573 (1989).

  19. Westside v. Mergens, 496 U.S. 226 (1990).

  20. Equal Access Act: U.S.C.S. § 4071-4074 (2004).

  21. Lee v. Weisman, 505 U.S. 577 (1992).

  22. Lee at 505-506, (Souter, J., concurring).

  23. Lamb’s Chapel v. Center Moriches Union Free School, 508 U.S. 384 (1993).

  24. Zobrest v. Catalina Foothills School District, 509 U.S. 1 (1993).

  25. Rosenberger v. Rector & Visitors of the University of Virginia, 515 U.S. 819 (1995).

  26. Boerne v. Flores, 521 U.S. 507 (1997).

  27. Santa Fe Independent School District v. Doe, 530 U.S. 290 (2000).

  28. Good News Club v. Milford Central School Schools, 533 U.S. 98 (2001).

  29. Van Orden v. Perry, 545 U.S. 677 (2005).

  30. McCreary County v. ACLU of Kentucky, 545 U.S. 844 (2005).

  31. Hein v. Freedom From Religion Foundation, No. 06-157, 551 U.S. _____ (2007).

  Chapter 10 The Court’s Use of Selective History

  1. World Book Encyclopedia, 1995, s.v. “Constitution of the United States, Amendment 14,” explained it this way: “The principal purpose of this amendment was to make former slaves citizens of both the United States and the state in which they lived.”

  2. Dred Scott v. Sandford, 60 U.S. 393 (1857).

  3. Statutes at Large, from December, 1873, to March, 1875 (Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 1875), 43rd Congress, 2nd Session, Vol. 18, pp. 335,-337, Chapter 114, March 1, 1875.

  4. Civil Rights Cases, 109 U.S. 3 (1883).

  5. Plessy v. Ferguson, 163 U.S. 537 (1896).

  6. Brown v. Board of Education, 347 U.S. 483 (1954).

  7. See, for example, Samuel T. Spears, Religion and the State (New York: Dodd, Mead &Co., 1876), pp. 224-225: “The Court in the cases of Paul vs. Virginia (8 Wallace, p. 168), and of the New Orleans Slaughter-house (16 Wallace, p. 36), laid down the principle that this provision [of the 14th Amendment] does not ‘control the power of the State governments over the rights of its own citizens.’ There is nothing in the last three amendments to the Constitution that reaches the question of religion, and nothing anywhere else in this instrument that places the States under the slightest restraint with reference to this subject; and, hence, it is true, as remarked by Justice Story, in his Commentaries on the Constitution (section 1879), that ‘the whole power over the subject of religion is left exclusively to the State governments, to be acted upon according to their sense of justice and the State constitutions.’ The States, moreover, by the express language of the Tenth Amendment, retain all ‘the powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States.’ These are called ‘reserved’ State powers; and among them is that of dealing with religion and the religious rights and liberties of the people in such manner as each State shall think most expedient. State power in this respect is plenary and complete, subject to no limitation by the National Constitution.” See also, Paul v. State of Virginia, 75 U.S. 168 (1868).

  8. McCullough v. Maryland, 4 Wheaton 316, 401 (1819).

  9. Church of the Holy Trinity v. United States, 143 U.S. 457, 465 (1892).

  10. Cantwell v. Connecticut, 310 U.S. 296 (1940).

  11. Murdock v. Pennsylvania, 319 U.S. 105 (1943).

  12. Everson v. Board of Education, 330 U.S. 1 (1947).

  13. See Walz v. Tax Commission, 397 U.S. 664, 701 (1970) (Douglas, J., dissenting).

  14. Abington v. Schempp, 374 U.S. 203, 215-216 (1963).

  15. Walz at 701-703 (Douglas, J., dissenting).

  16. Samuel Adams, The Writings of Samuel Adams, Harry Alonzo Cushing, editor (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1908
), Vol. IV, p. 332, to Elbridge Gerry, August 22, 1789.

  17. Thomas Jefferson, Memoir, Correspondence, and Miscellanies, Thomas Jefferson Randolph, editor (Boston: Gray and Bowen, 1830), Vol. IV, p. 374, to William Johnson, June 12, 1823.

  18. Jefferson, Memoir, Vol. IV, pp. 103-104, to Samuel Miller, January 23, 1808.

  19. Barron v. Baltimore, 32 U.S. 243, 249-250 (1833).

  20. McCollum v. Board of Education, 333 U.S. 203, 218-219, n. 6 (1948).

  21. McCollum at 218, n. 6.

  22. Everson v. Board of Education, 330 U.S. 1, 13 (1947).

  23. Engel v. Vitale, 370 U.S. 421, 428 (1962).

  24. The Constitutions of the Several Independent States of America (Boston: Norman and Bowen, 1785), pp. 73-74, New Jersey, 1776, Section 19.

  25. Constitutions (1785), p. 138, North Carolina, 1776, Section 34.

  26. Constitutions (1785), p. 91, Delaware, 1776, “Declaration of Rights,” Section 2.

  27. Constitutions (1785), p. 67, New York, 1777, Section 38.

  28. Constitutions (1785), p. 77, Pennsylvania, 1776, “Declaration of Rights,” Section 2.

  29. Constitutions (1785), p. 166, Georgia, 1777, Section 56.

  30. The Constitutions of the Sixteen States (Boston: Manning and Loring, 1797), p. 250, Vermont, 1786, “Declaration of Rights,” Section 3.

  31. John V. L. McMahon, An Historical View of the Government of Maryland (Baltimore: F. Lucas, Jr. Cushing & Sons, and William & Joseph Neal, 1831), Vol. I, pp. 380-400.

  32. Wallace v. Jaffree, 472 U.S. 38, 98-99 (1985) (Rehnquist, J., dissenting).

  33. Thomas Jefferson, The Writings of Thomas Jefferson, Albert Ellery Bergh, editor (Washington, DC: Thomas Jefferson Memorial Association, 1904), Vol. X, p. 325, to Joseph Priestley, June 19, 1802.

  34. James Madison, The Letters and Other Writings of James Madison (New York: R. Worthington, 1884), Vol. IV, pp. 341-342, to William Cogswell, March 10, 1834.

  35. Forrest McDonald, Novus Ordo Seclorum: The Intellectial Origins of the Constitution (Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas, 1985), pp. 208-209, quoting from The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787, Max Farrand, editor (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1911).

  36. Forrest, Seclorum, pp. 205-209.

  37. James Wilson, The Works of James Wilson, Robert Green McCloskey, editor (MA: Belknap Press, 1967), Vol. I, p. 2, introduction.

  38. S. Sidney Olmer, “Charles Pinckney: Father of the Constitution,” South Carolina Law Quarterly 10 (1958), 225-247.

  39. Jared Sparks, The Life of George Washington (Boston: Ferdinand Andrews, 1839), pp. 403-404; see also Catherine Drinker Bowen, Miracle at Philadelphia (Boston: Little, Brown, and Co., 1966), pp. 192-193, James Monroe to Thomas Jefferson; see also Jay A. Perry, Andrew N. Allison, and W. Cleon Skousen, The Real George Washington (Washington, DC: National Center for Constitutional Studies, 1991), p. 506, James Monroe to Thomas Jefferson.

  40. George Bancroft, A Plea for the Constitution of the United States Wounded in the House of its Guardians (New York: Harper, 1886), p. 7.

  41. Jefferson, Writings (1903), Vol. X, p. 325, to Joseph Priestley, June 19, 1802.

  42. James Madison, The Papers of James Madison, Henry D. Gilpin, editor (Washington, DC: Langress and O’Sullivan, 1840), Vol. III, p. 1566, September 12, 1787; see also George Bancroft, Bancroft’s History of the Formation of the Constitution (New York: D. Appleton and Co., 1882), Vol. II, pp. 209-210; Farrand’s Records of The Federal Convention of 1787, Vol. II, pp. 588, 637.

  43. Debates in the Several State Conventions on the Adoption of the Federal Constitution, Jonathan Elliot, editor (Washington, DC: 1836), Vol. I, p. 306, September 12, 1787.

  44. Elliot’s Debates, Vol. III, pp. 652-655, June 25, 1788.

  45. Elliot’s Debates, Vol. II, pp. 176-181, February 6, 1788.

  46. Joseph B. Walker, A History of the New Hampshire Convention (Boston: Cupples &Hurd, 1888), pp. 41-43, June 21, 1788.

  47. Elliot’s Debates, Vol. II, p. 413, July 26, 1788.

  48. Collections of the Rhode Island Historical Society (Providence: Knowles and Vose, 1843), Vol. V, pp. 320-321, March 24, 1788.

  49. Elliot’s Debates, Vol. IV, pp. 242-251, August 1-2, 1788.

  50. Elliot’s Debates, Vol. III, pp. 616-622, James Madison, June 24, 1788.

  51. Kate Mason Rowland, The Life of George Mason (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1892), Vol. I, p. 244.

  52. Elliot’s Debates, Vol. III, pp. 655-656, June 25, 1788.

  53. Patrick Henry, Life, Correspondence and Speeches, William Wirt Henry (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1891), Vol. I, pp. 430-431; see also Kate Mason Rowland, The Life of George Mason (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1892), Vol. I, p. 244; see also Elliot’s Debates, Vol. III, p. 659, June 27, 1788.

  54. The Debates and Proceedings in the Congress of the United States (Washington, DC: Gales & Seaton, 1834), pp. 448-450, 1st Congress, 1st Session, June 8, 1789; see also Wallace v. Jaffree, 472 U.S. 38, 93-99, Rehnquist, J. (dissenting).

  55. See Debates and Proceedings, Vol. I, pp. 440-948, June 8 - September 24, 1789.

  56. James D. Richardson, A Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Presidents, 1789-1897 (Published by Authority of Congress, 1899), Vol. I, pp. 512-513, June 19, 1812; pp. 532-533, July 23, 1813; p. 558, November 16, 1814; pp. 560-561, March 4, 1815.

  57. Jefferson, Memoir, Vol. IV, pp. 103-104, to Samuel Miller on January 23, 1808.

  58. Jefferson, Memoir, Vol. IV, pp. 103-104, to Samuel Miller on January 23, 1808.

  59. For example, see Jefferson’s encouragement of a day for fasting and prayer for June 1, 1774 ( Jefferson, Writings, Vol. I, pp. 9-10) and the November 11, 1779, proclamation for a day of prayer and thanksgiving he issued while Governor. See Official Letters of the Governors of the State of Virginia, H. R. McIlwaine, editor (Richmond: Virginia State Library, 1928), Vol. II, pp. 64-66.

  60. James Madison, The Papers of James Madison, Robert A Rutland, editor (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1973), Vol. VIII, p. 396.

  61. Jefferson, Writings, Vol. XIX, pp. 449-450, Meeting of the Visitors of the University, October 4, 1824.

  62. Jefferson, Writings, Vol. XIX, pp. 449-450, Meeting of the Visitors of the University, October 4, 1824.

  63. Jefferson, Memoir, Vol. IV, pp. 358-359, to Thomas Cooper, November 2, 1822.

  64. Jefferson, Writings, Vol. XVI, p. 291, to John Thomas, November 18, 1807.

  65. Henry S. Randall, The Life of Thomas Jefferson (New York: Derby & Jackson, 1858), Vol. III, pp. 451-452. For an alternative view of the purpose of this book, see Jefferson’s Extracts from the Gospel’s, Dickinson W. Adams, editor (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983), p. 28, n. 87.

  66. American State Papers, Walter Lowrie and Matthew St. Claire Clarke, editors (Washington, DC: Gales and Seaton, 1832), Vol. IV, p. 687.

  67. Notes to pages 214-216 Wallace v. Jaffree, 472 U.S. 38, 103 (1985) (Rehnquist, J., dissenting).

  68. Debates and Proceedings in the Congress of the United States, Seventh Congress (Washington, DC: Gales and Seaton, 1851), p. 1332, “An Act in Addition to An Act, Entitled, ‘An Act in Addition to an Act Regulating the Grants of Land Appropriated for Military Services, and for the Society of the United Brethren for Propagating the Gospel Among the Heathen’ ”; Seventh Congress, Second Session, p. 1602, “An Act to Revive and Continue in Force An Act in Addition to An Act, Entitled, ‘An Act in Addition to an Act Regulating the Grants of Land Appropriated for Military Services, and for the Society of the United Brethren for Propagating the Gospel Among the Heathen,’ and for Other Purposes”; and Eighth Congress, p. 1279,” An Act Granting Further Time for Locating Military Land Warrants, and for Other Purposes.”

  69. Madison, Letters, Vol. I, pp. 5-6, to William Bradford, November 9, 1772.

  70. James Madison, The Papers of James Madison, William T. Hutchinson, editor (Illinois: University of Chicago Press, 1962), Vol. I, p. 96, to William Bradford, September 25, 1773.
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  71. The Proceedings of the Convention of Delegates, Held at the Capitol in the City of Williamsburg, in the Colony of Virginia, on Monday the 6th of May, 1776 (Williamsburg: Alexander Purdie, 1776), p. 103. Madison on the Committee, May 16, 1776; the “Declaration of Rights” passed June 12, 1776.

  72. Debates and Proceedings, Vol. I, p. 451, June 8, 1789.

  73. Debates and Proceedings, Vol. I, pp. 758-759, August 15, 1789.

  74. Debates and Proceedings, Vol. I, p. 109, April 9, 1789.

  75. The Debates and Proceedings in the Congress of the United States (Washington, DC: Gales & Seaton, 1853), p. 1325, 12th Congress, 2nd Session: “An Act for the relief of the Bible Society of Philadelphia. Be it enacted, &c., That the duties arising and due to the United States upon certain stereotype plates, imported during the last year into the port of Philadelphia, on board the ship Brilliant, by the Bible Society of Philadelphia, for the purpose of printing editions of the Holy Bible, be and the same are hereby remitted, on behalf of the United States, to the said society: and any bond or security given for the securing of the payment of the said duties shall be cancelled. Approved February 2, 1813.”

  76. Richardson, Compilation, Vol. I, p. 513, July 9, 1812; pp. 532-533, July 23, 1813; p. 558, November 16, 1814; pp. 560-561, March 4, 1815.

  77. The William & Mary Quarterly, October 1946, Vol. III, No. 4, Madison’s “Detached Memoranda,” edited by Elizabeth Fleet, pp. 534-568.

  78. James Madison, Letters and Other Writings of James Madison (New York: R. Worthington, 1884), Vol. III, p. 19, to Miles King, September 5, 1816.

  79. Patrick Henry, Life, Correspondence, and Speeches, William Wirt Henry, editor (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1891), Vol. II, p. 207.

  80. James Madison, A Memorial and Remonstrance Presented to the General Assembly of the State of Virginia at their Session in 1785 in Consequence of a Bill Brought into that Assembly for the Establishment of Religion (Massachusetts: Isaiah Thomas, 1786); see also the text of Madison’s 1813 Presidential proclamation.

  81. William C. Rives, History of the Life and Times of James Madison (Boston: Little, Brown, and Co., 1873), Vol. I, p. 602; see also Patrick Henry, Life, Correspondence and Speeches, William Wirt Henry (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1891), Vol. II, p. 211.