74. The NAACP Image Awards recognize positive images of Blacks in the media. See the organization’s website: www.naacp.org.
75. See Hunt, Ramón, and Tran, 2016.
76. FreePress.org has a page dedicated to the issues of civil rights and media justice. See www.freepress.net/media_issues/civil_rights (accessed April 15, 2012).
77. The Federal Trade Commission is looking into the privacy issues facing Americans over Google’s targeted and behavior-based advertising programs. It has also settled out of court over the Google book-digitization project, which was reported in the media as a “monopolistic online land grab” over public domain orphan works. See Yang and Easton, 2009.
78. See Roberts, 2016; Stone, 2010.
79. For more information, see Roberts, 2012.
80. Roberts, 2016.
81. See Heider and Harp, 2002; Gunkel and Gunkel, 1997; Pavlik, 1996; Kellner, 1995; Barlow, 1996.
82. See Heider and Harp, 2002.
83. Ibid., 289.
84. Berger, 1972, 64.
85. See Mayall and Russell, 1993, 295.
86. Gardner, 1980, 105–106.
87. Gunkel and Gunkel, 1997, 131.
88. Lipsitz, 1998, 370.
89. Ibid., 381.
90. See Mills, 2014.
91. See Winner, 1986; Pacey, 1983.
92. See Chouliaraki and Fairclough, 1999.
93. See Barlow, 1996.
94. See Segev, 2010.
95. Stepan, 1998, 28.
96. #Gamergate was an incident involving a group of anonymous harassers of women in the video-gaming industry, including Zoë Quinn and Brianna Wu, as well as the writer and critic Anita Sarkeesian, who faced death threats and threats of rape, among others. In response to challenges of white male supremacy, sexism, racism, and misogyny in video-game culture, many women video-game developers, feminists, and men supporting women in gaming were attacked online as well as stalked and harassed.
CHAPTER 2. SEARCHING FOR BLACK GIRLS
1. See Guynn, 2016.
2. See Hiles, 2015.
3. See Sinclair, 2004; Everett, 2009; Nelson, Tu, and Hines, 2001; Daniels, 2015; Weheliye, 2003; Eglash, 2002; Noble, 2012.
4. See chapter 2 for a detailed explanation of Google AdWords.
5. To protect the identity of subjects in the websites and advertisements, I intentionally erased faces and body parts using Adobe Photoshop while still leaving enough visual elements for a reader to make sense of the content and discourse of the text and images.
6. See Omi and Winant, 1994.
7. See Daniels, 2009.
8. Ibid., 56.
9. Treitler, 1998, 966.
10. See Golash-Boza, 2016.
11. Omi and Winant, 1994, 67.
12. See Daniels, 2013.
13. See Hall, 1989; Davis and Gandy, 1999.
14. See Fraser, 1996.
15. Jansen and Spink, 2006.
16. McCarthy, 1994, 91.
17. Davis and Gandy, 1999, 368.
18. Barzilai-Nahon, 2006.
19. See Segev, 2010.
20. Ibid.
21. See Williamson, 2014.
22. XMCP, 2008.
23. Morville, 2005, 4.
24. See C. M. West, 1995; hooks, 1992.
25. See Ladson-Billings, 2009.
26. See Yarbrough and Bennett, 2000.
27. See Treitler, 2013; Bell, 1992; Delgado and Stefancic, 1999.
28. See Davis and Gandy, 1999; Gray, 1989; Matabane, 1988; Wilson, Gutierrez, and Chao, 2003.
29. See Dates, 1990.
30. Punyanunt-Carter, 2008.
31. Ford, 1997.
32. Fujioka, 1999.
33. Pacey, 1983; Winner, 1986; Warf and Grimes, 1997.
34. See Pacey, 1983.
35. Winner, 1986.
36. Warf and Grimes, 1997, 260.
37. Brock, 2011, 1088.
38. Harvey, 2005; Fairclough, 1995.
39. See Boyle, 2003; D. Schiller, 2007.
40. See Davis, 1972.
41. See Dorsey, 2003.
42. See hooks, 1992, 62.
43. Ibid.
44. Dorsey, 2003.
45. Ibid.
46. U.S. Census Bureau, 2008.
47. According to the U.S. Census Bureau (2007). 5.4% of White married people live in poverty, compared to 9.7% of Blacks and 14.9% of Hispanics. Among single people, 22.5% of Whites live in poverty, compared to 44% of Blacks and 33.4% of Hispanics.
48. Ibid.
49. See the “Panel Study of Income Dynamics,” reportedly the longest running longitudinal household survey in the world, conducted by the University of Michigan: http://psidonline.isr.umich.edu.
50. Lerner, 1986, 223.
51. Ibid.
52. See Sharpley-Whiting, 1999; Hobson, 2008.
53. See Braun et al., 2007.
54. Ibid., e271 (original notes omitted).
55. Ibid.
56. See Stepan, 1998.
57. See L. Harding, 2012.
58. See White, [1985] 1999.
59. See the museum’s website: www.ferris.edu/jimcrow.
60. See Miller-Young, 2005; Harris-Perry, 2011.
61. See White, 1985/1999, 29. White’s book is an excellent historical examination of the Jezebel portrayal, especially chapter 1, “Jezebel and Mammy” (27–61).
62. See C. M. West, 1995.
63. See Kilbourne, 2000; Cortese, 2008; O’Barr, 1994.
64. See Everett, 2009; Brock, 2009; Brock, Kvasny, and Hales, 2010.
65. See Kappeler, 1986.
66. Ibid., 3.
67. See Paasonen, 2011.
68. See ibid.; Bennett, 2001; Filippo, 2000; O’Toole, 1998; Perdue, 2002.
69. See Estabrook and Lakner, 2000.
70. Nash, 2008, 53.
71. Miller-Young, 2014.
72. Paasonen, 2010, 418.
73. Ibid.
74. Dines, 2010, 48.
75. Ibid., 47, 48.
76. Miller-Young, 2007, 267.
77. See hooks, 1992, 65.
78. Miller-Young, 2007, 262.
79. See Greer, 2003; France, 1999; Tucher, 1997.
80. See Markowitz, 1999.
81. See Burbules, 2001.
82. See Barth, 1966; Jenkins, 1994.
83. See Herring, Jankowski, and Brown, 1999, 363.
84. See Vaidhyanathan, 2011; Gandy, 2011.
85. See Jenkins, 1994.
86. See Harris, 1995.
87. See Jenkins, 1994.
88. Davis and Gandy, 1999, 367.
89. See Jenkins, 1994; Davis and Gandy, 1999.
90. See Ferguson, Kreshel, and Tinkham, 1990; Pease, 1985; Potter, 1954.
91. See Ferguson, Kreshel, and Tinkham, 1990; Tuchman, 1979.
92. See Rudman and Borgida, 1995; Kenrick, Gutierres, and Goldberg, 1989; Jennings, Geis, and Brown, 1980.
93. Kilbourne, 2000, 27.
94. Kuhn 1985, 10; quoted in hooks, 1992, 77.
95. See Paasonen, 2011; Gillis, 2004; Sollfrank, 2002; Haraway, 1991.
96. See Wajcman, 2010.
97. See Wajcman, 1991, 5.
98. Wajcman, 2010, 150.
99. See Everett, 2009, 149.
100. See Daniels, 2015.
101. See Everett, 2009.
102. Fouché, 2006, 640.
CHAPTER 3. SEARCHING FOR PEOPLE AND COMMUNITIES
1. Dylann Roof was indicted on federal hate crimes charges on July 22, 2015. Apuzzo, 2015.
2. The website of Dylann Roof’s photos and writings, www.lastrhodesian.com, has been taken down but can be accessed in the Internet Archive at http://web.archive.org/web/20150620135047/http://lastrhodesian.com/data/documents/rtf88.txt.
3. See description of the CCC by the SPLC at www.splcenter.org/get-informed/intelligence-files/groups/council-of-conservative-citizens.
4. Gabriella Coleman, the Wolfe Chair in Scientific and Technological Literacy at McGill Univers
ity, has written extensively about the activism and disruptions of the hackers known as Anonymous and the cultural and political nature of their work of whistleblowing and hacktivism. See Coleman, 2015.
5. FBI statistics from 2010 show that the majority of crime happens within race. They also note that “White individuals were arrested more often for violent crimes than individuals of any other race, accounting for 59.3 percent of those arrests.” See U.S. Department of Justice, 2010.
6. See Daniels, 2009, 8.
CHAPTER 4. SEARCHING FOR PROTECTIONS FROM SEARCH ENGINES
1. See Associated Press, 2013.
2. See Gold, 2011.
3. Ibid. The original post can be found at http://you-aremyanchor.tumblr.com/post/7530939623.
4. See Cyber Civil Rights Initiative, “Revenge Porn Laws,” accessed August 9, 2017, www.cybercivilrights.org.
5. Rocha, 2014.
6. Ohlheiser, 2015.
7. See Judgment of the Court (Grand Chamber), 13 May 2014, Google Spain SL, Google Inc. v. Agencia Español de Protección de Datos (AEPD), Mario Costeja González, http://curia.europa.eu.
8. See Xanthoulis, 2013.
9. See Charte du droit à l’oubli dans les sites collaboratifs et les moteurs de recherche, September 30, 2010.
10. See Xanthoulis, 2013; Kuschewsky, 2012.
11. See Jones, 2016.
12. See Purcell, Brenner, and Rainie, 2012.
13. See UnpublishArrest.com, “Unpublish, Permanently Publish or Edit Content,” accessed August 9, 2017, www.unpublisharrest.com/unpublish-mugshot/.
14. See Sweeney, 2013.
15. Blanchette and Johnson, 2002.
16. Ibid., 34.
17. Gandy, 1993, 285.
18. See Caswell, 2014.
19. See “Explore a Google Data Center with Street View,” YouTube, linked from Google, “Inside Our Data Centers,” accessed August 17, 2017, www.google.com/about/datacenters/inside/.
20. Google, “Inside Look: Data and Security,” accessed August 17, 2017, www.google.com/about/datacenters/inside/data-security/.
21. “Security Whitepaper: Google Apps Messaging and Collaboration Products,” 2011, linked from Google, “Data and Security,” accessed August 16, 2016, www.google.com/about/datacenters/inside/data-security/.
22. See Storm, 2014.
23. Blanchette and Johnson, 2002, 36.
24. See Xanthoulis, 2012, 85, citing Fleischer, 2011.
25. Ibid.
26. See Google, 2012.
27. A comprehensive timeline of Edward Snowden’s whistleblowing on the U.S. government’s comprehensive surveillance program is detailed by the Guardian newspaper in MacAskill and Dance, 2013.
28. Tippman, 2015.
29. Kiss, 2015.
30. Goode, 2015.
31. See Robertson, 2016.
32. Ibid.
CHAPTER 5. THE FUTURE OF KNOWLEDGE IN THE PUBLIC
1. See the plan at “The Plan for Dartmouth’s Freedom Budget: Items for Transformative Justice at Dartmouth,” Dartblog, accessed August 9, 2017, www.dartblog.com/Dartmouth_Freedom_Budget_Plan.pdf.
2. Peet, 2016.
3. Ibid.
4. Ibid.
5. Qin, 2016.
6. Sanford Berman documents the sordid history of racist classification in the Library of Congress in his canonical work Prejudices and Antipathies (1971). A follow-up to his findings was written thirty years later by Steven A. Knowlton in the article “Three Decades since Prejudices and Antipathies: A Study of Changes in the Library of Congress Subject Headings” (2005).
7. Peet, 2016.
8. Furner, 2007, 148.
9. Ibid., 147.
10. Ibid., 169.
11. See Olson, 1998.
12. See Anderson, 1991, 37–46.
13. Hudson, 1996, 256; Anderson, 1991.
14. The first documented evidence of print culture is attributed to Chinese woodblock printing. See Hyatt Mayor, 1971, 1–4.
15. See Saracevic, 2009.
16. See Berman, 1971; Olson, 1998.
17. Berman, 1971, 15.
18. Ibid., 5.
19. See ibid.; Palmer and Malone, 2001.
20. See Berman, 1971, 5.
21. Ibid.
22. Olson, 1998, 233.
23. Ibid., 234
24. Ibid., 234–235.
25. Ibid., 235.
26. Ibid.
27. See Cornell, 1992; Olson, 1998.
28. See Olson, 1998, 237.
29. See C. West, 1996, 84.
30. See Berman, 1971, 18.
31. Ibid., citing Mosse, 1966.
32. See Wilson, 1968, 6.
33. Berman, 1971, 19, citing Marshall, personal communication, June 23, 1970.
34. Ibid., 20.
35. Reidsma, 2016.
36. See Galloway, 2008.
37. See Galloway, Lovink, and Thacker, 2008.
38. See Galloway, 2008.
39. Battelle, 2005, 6.
40. See Brin and Page, 1998a.
41. Saracevic, 1999, 1054.
42. Ibid.
43. Saracevic, 2009, 2570.
44. See Bowker and Star, 1999.
45. See Saracevic, 2009.
46. See Brock, 2011.
47. Ibid., 1101.
48. See Fuchs, 2008.
CHAPTER 6. THE FUTURE OF INFORMATION CULTURE
1. See Federal Communications Commission, 2010
2. Ibid.
3. H. Schiller, 1996, 44.
4. Cohen, 2016.
5. See McChesney and Nichols, 2009; H. Schiller, 1996.
6. See Harris-Perry, 2011; hooks, 1992.
7. Arreola, 2010.
8. See the website of the Society of Professional Journalists Code of Ethics, www.spj.org.
9. See Darnton, 2009; Jeanneney, 2007.
10. See Jeanneney, 2007.
11. See Authors Guild v. Google, Case 1:05-cv-08136-DC, Document 1088, November 14, 2013.
12. Darnton, 2009, 2.
13. See Search King v. Google, 2003.
14. See Dickinson, 2010.
15. Ibid., 866.
16. Ibid.
17. Ingram, 2011.
18. See Wilhelm, 2006.
19. See Sinclair, 2004.
20. See Luyt, 2004.
21. See van Dijk and Hacker, 2003; and Pinkett, 2000.
22. See Rifkin, 2000.
23. See Segev, 2010.
24. See Rifkin, 1995.
25. The term “prosumer” is a portmanteau of “producer” and “consumer” that is often used to indicate a higher degree of digital literacy, economic participation, and personal control over the means of technology production. The term is mostly attributed, in this context, to Alvin Toffler, a futurist who thought that the line between traditional economic consumer and producer would eventually blur through engagements with technology and that this participation would generally lead to greater mass customization of products and services by corporations. See Toffler, 1970, 1980; Tapscott, 1996; Ritzer and Jurgenson, 2010.
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