The Persian Empire

by Kia, Mehrdad;

  The Zend-Avesta, Part II: The Sirozahs, Yashts, and Nyayish. Translated by James Darmesteter. Delhi: Molital Banarsidass, 1965.

  Arash

  Arash is one of the greatest of ancient Iran’s legendary heroes. An early mention of him appears in the Zoroastrian holy book the Avesta, which describes him as the archer Erekhsha, he of the swiftest arrow among the Aryans:

  We sacrifice unto Tishtrya, the bright and glorious star; who flies towards the sea Vouru-Kasha, as swiftly as the arrow darted through the heavenly space, which Erekhsha, the swift archer, the Arya amongst the Aryas whose arrow was the swiftest, shot from Mount Khshaotha [Mount Damavand in northern Iran?] to Mount Hvanvant [Mount Bamian from which the Balkh river springs]. (The Zend-Avesta, Part II: Tir Yasht, 6, 37)

  In Pahlavi texts, Erekhsha appears as “Arish Shivātir” or “Arish of the swift arrow,” the best and most accomplished archer in the Iranian army during the reign of the legendary Pishdadian dynasty (The Zend-Avesta, Part II: 95n2). When Manuchehr (Minōchihr), the king of Iran, is forced to make peace with his greatest enemy, Afrasiyab, the king of Turan, it is stipulated that the best of Iran’s archers “should ascend Mount Damavand and from thence discharge an arrow towards the east; and that the place in which the arrow” falls “should form the boundary” between the two kingdoms of Iran and Turan (The Zend-Avesta, Part II: 95n2). Arash volunteers to climb the mountain and discharge his arrow toward the east. The arrow of the great archer travels from dawn until noon and falls on the banks of the Oxus River, or Amu Darya (The Zend-Avesta, Part II: 95n2). Meanwhile, upon releasing his arrow the body of Arash disintegrates, and those who search for his remains return empty-handed, managing only to trace his bow. According to one Pahlavi text, this momentous event takes place on the day of Khordad, or the sixth day of Farvardin, the first month in the Iranian calendar, the most auspicious date in the entire calendar. The anonymous author of the Pahlavi text Mah-e Farvardin Ruz-e Khordad [The Month of Farvardin the Day of Khordad] states that on the sixth day of Farvardin, King Manuchehr, together with Arash Shivatir of the swift arrow, reclaimed the Iranian lands from Afrasiyab the Turanian who had invaded Iran (Kia: 8).

  After the fall of the Sasanian dynasty in 651 CE, the myth of Arash survived. Abu Rayhan Biruni, an Iranian scholar of the Islamic era, linked the story of Arash to the feast of Tiragan (Tirgan), which is celebrated on the day of Tir (i.e., the 13th day of each month) in the month of Tir, the fourth month in the Iranian calendar. Biruni wrote:

  On the 13th, or Tir-Roz, there is a feast Tiragan, so called on account of the identity of the name of the month and the day. Of the two causes to which it is traced, one is this, that Afrasiyab after having subdued Eranshahr (Iran), and while besieging Minocihr [Manuchehr] in Tabaristan [the Caspian province of Mazandaran] asked him some favor. Minocihr complied with his wish, on the condition that he (Afrasiyab) should restore to him a part of Eranshahr as long and as broad as an arrow-shot. On that occasion there was a genius present, called Isfandarmadh [Avestan Spenta Armaiti (holy or beneficent devotion), which appears as Spendarmad in Middle Persian and Esfand in New Persian, is the protector of earth. Esfand is also the twelfth month of the year in the Iranian calendar]; he ordered to be brought a bow and an arrow of such a size as he himself had indicated to the arrow-maker, in conformity with that which is manifest in the Avesta. Then he sent for Arish, a noble, pious, and wise man, and ordered him to take the bow and to shoot the arrow. Arish stepped forward, took off his clothes, and said: “O king, and ye others, look at my body. I am free from any wound or disease. I know that when I shoot with this bow and arrow I shall fall to pieces and my life will be gone, but I have determined to sacrifice it for you.” Then he applied himself to the work and bent the bow with all the power God had given him; then he shot, and fell asunder into pieces. By the order of God the wind bore the arrow away from the mountain of Ruyan and brought it to the utmost frontier of Khurasan between Farghana and Tabaristan; there it hit the trunk of a nut-tree that was so large that there had never been a tree like it in the world. The distance between the place where the arrow was shot and that where it fell was 1,000 Farsakh. Afrasiyab and Minocihr made a treaty on the basis of this shot that was shot on this day. In consequence people made it a feast-day. (Biruni: 205, 25)

  In a section of his History devoted to the festivals of Zoroastrians, the historian Gardizi wrote that on the 13th day of the month of Tir, the Zoroastrians celebrated a festival called Tirgan, for it was on this day that the king of Iran, Manuchehr, made peace with Afrasiyab, the king of Turan, after they agreed that the arrow of an archer should set the boundary between the two kingdoms (Gardizi: 518–519). The archer Arash discharged an arrow that traveled from the mountains of Ruyan (one of the Caspian provinces of northern Iran) and landed on a mountain between Farghaneh (present-day Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan) and Tokharestan (present-day northern Afghanistan) (Gardizi: 518). Gardizi added that on this day the Zoroastrians bathed and cleansed themselves. They also cooked a dish that contained wheat mixed with fruits (Gardizi: 518–519).

  The story of Arash the archer is repeated in the Shahnameh [Book of Kings] of Ferdowsi. According to Ferdowsi, Manuchehr, the king of Iran, is engaged in a fierce battle against the armies of Iran’s sworn enemies, the Turanians, in the region of Tabarestan, which corresponds with the present-day northern Iranian province of Mazandaran, located on the southern shores of the Caspian Sea and the northern slopes of the Alborz mountain range. The Turanians, led by their king Afrasiyab, have surrounded the Iranian army. At this point, both sides agree to end the war and conclude a peace treaty. According to the peace agreement, the boundary between Iran and Turan will be established by an archer who will discharge his arrow in an easterly direction from the top of a mountain. Wherever the arrow lands will be recognized as the boundary between the two kingdoms. Thus, the brilliant archer Arash volunteers to discharge his arrow as far east as he can. As the sun rises on the horizon, he climbs Mount Damavand and, upon reaching its peak, discharges his arrow, which travels long and far before it lands at the end of the day on the banks of the Oxus River (Amu Darya). As Arash had predicted before climbing the mountain, his body disintegrates upon releasing his arrow.

  There are numerous versions of the legend of Arash, many claiming different locations for the mountain from which the arrow is discharged and for the place where it lands. Most sources agree that the arrow is discharged from somewhere in northern Iran (either Mount Damavand or a town or fortress in the Caspian province of Ruyan). Despite their differences on where the arrow lands, however, these sources mostly concur that it is somewhere in northern Afghanistan or Central Asia, the most popular site being a walnut tree on the banks of the Oxus, the present-day border of Tajikistan and Uzbekistan with Afghanistan.

  In the 20th century the courageous, noble, and selfless figure of Arash, who gave his life to liberate his homeland from foreign domination, emerged as one of the exemplary models of Iranian nationalism. In 1959, the Iranian poet Siyavash Kasrai (1927–1996) popularized the legend of Arash in his much-admired and widely acclaimed poem Arash-e Kamangir [Arash the Archer]. This modern retelling of the legend of Arash celebrates the highly accomplished archer as a national hero who sacrificed his life to liberate his country and people from tyranny and foreign occupation.

  See also: Ancient Provinces: Alborz; Legendary Kings: Afrasiyab; Manuchehr; Pishdadian

  Further Reading

  Biruni, Abu Rayhan. Athar ul-Bakiya [Vestiges of the Past]. Translated by C. Edward Sachau as The Chronology of Ancient Nations. London: W. H. Allen, 1879.

  Gardizi. Tarikh-e Gardizi. Edited by Abdol-Hay Habibi. Tehran: Donya-ye Ketab, 1985.

  Kia, Sadeq. Mah-e Farvardin Ruz-e Khordad. Tehran: Iran Kudeh, Number 16, 1952.

  Tafazzoli, Ahmad. “Āraš.” Encyclopaedia Iranica, 1986, http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aras-avestan-erexsa.

  The Zend-Avesta, Part II: The Sirozahs, Yashts, Nyayish. Translated by James
Darmesteter. Delhi: Molital Banarsidass, 1965.

  Bahman

  A king of the Kayanian dynasty in the national epic of Greater Iran. Bahman appears as the grandson of King Goshtasp and the son of Esfandiyar, the Kayanian crown prince who is killed by the legendary hero Rostam.

  Bahman is not mentioned in the Avesta, the Zoroastrian holy book, as a king of the Kayanian dynasty. There are, however, several references to Bahman in Pahlavi texts, including the Dinkard and Bundahishn. The historian Tabari identifies him as the son of Esfandiyar, the crown prince of the Kayanian monarch “Beshtasp” (i.e., Goshtasp) who invades Sistan and avenges his father by killing Zal (Dastan), Zal’s son Rostam, Rostam’s son Faramarz, and Rostam’s brother Zavareh (Azvareh) (Tabari: 2.484). Tabari calls Bahman “Ardashir Bahman” and associates him with the Persian Achaemenid king Artaxerxes I. The Greek sources gave Artaxerxes I the surname of Macrocheir, while his surname in Latin was Longimanus (Longhand) because his right hand was apparently longer than his left. Tabari also attributes to Ardashir Bahman the Persian title of deraz dast (longhand) (Tabari: 2.484). Tabari also identifies Bahman as the father of two sons, Dara-ye Bozorg (Darius the Great) and Sasan, and two daughters, Farang and Bahmandokht (Tabari: 2.484–485). Another historian, Gardizi, also refers to Bahman as “Ardashir the Long Arm,” “the best of Persian kings” who invades Sistan to avenge the death of his father, Esfandiyar (Gardizi: 54–55). Gardizi’s account, however, differs from Tabari’s in that his Bahman arrives in Sistan after Rostam has already died. Rostam’s father, Zal, meets with Bahman but expresses his disapproval of the king’s behavior. Bahman fights Rostam’s son, Faramarz, but despite his best efforts fails to defeat his adversary (Gardizi: 55). Tabari’s account is repeated, albeit with some variations by other Muslim historians. For example, Ibn al-Balkhi states that Bahman had five children, whereas Tabari only mentions four (Ibn al-Balkhi: 54).

  Illustration from Shahnameh [Book of Kings], the national epic of the Persian-speaking people, composed by the epic poet Abul Qasem Ferdowsi. (Detroit Institute of Arts/Founders Society purchase, Edsel B. Ford Fund/Bridgeman Images)

  In Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh [Book of Kings], Bahman appears as the son of Esfandiyar, the crown prince of King Goshtasp of the Kayanian dynasty. Esfandiyar is killed by Rostam, Iran’s greatest legendary hero, on the battlefield. Before he dies, Esfandiyar blames his father, Goshtasp, for his own death and pleads with Rostam to raise his son, Bahman, as his own. Rostam promises Esfandiyar that he will adopt Bahman as his own son. Bahman grows up in Sistan. After he is trained and educated by Rostam, Bahman returns to the Kayanian court and ascends the throne upon the death of his grandfather, King Goshtasp. Once on the throne, Bahman raises an army and invades Sistan to avenge the death of his father, Esfandiyar. The hero Rostam who had killed his father has already died, but Rostam’s father, Zal, remains the ruler of Sistan. In the first attack, Zal is captured and put in bondage. The kingdom of Sistan is devastated, and its magnificent treasury is plundered by Bahman and his army. Next, Bahman fights Faramarz, the son of Rostam. When the battle is joined, Faramarz is defeated and captured after three days and three nights of fierce fighting. Faramarz is subsequently executed.

  See also: Legendary Kings: Esfandiyar; Faramarz; Goshtasp; Rostam; Zal

  Further Reading

  Bundahishn. Edited by Mehrdad Bahar. Tehran: Tus Publications, 1991.

  Bundahishn-e Hendi. Translated and edited by Roqiyeh Behzadi. Tehran: Moasese-ye Motaleat va Tahqiqat-e Farhangi, 1990.

  Ferdowsi. Shahnameh. Edited by Djalal Khaleghi-Motlagh. New York: Mazda Publishers, 1997.

  Ferdowsi, Abulqasem. Shahnameh. Translated by Dick Davis. New York: Penguin Classics, 2007.

  Gardizi. Tarikh-e Gardizi. Edited by Abdol-Hay Habibi. Tehran: Donya-ye Ketab, 1985.

  Ibn al-Balkhi. Farsnama. Edited by G. Le Strange and R. A. Nicholson. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1921.

  Pahlavi Texts, Part I: The Bundahishn. Translated by E. W. West. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1965.

  Pahlavi Texts, Part III: Dina-i Mainog-i Khirad. Translated by E. W. West. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1965.

  Tabari. Tarikh-e Tabari, Vol. 2. Translated from Arabic into Persian by Abol Qassem Payandeh. Tehran: Asatir Publications, 1984.

  Esfandiyar

  Esfandiyar (Esfandiar) is a great hero in the legendary history of Iran. He is the son and the crown prince of the legendary king of the Kayanian monarch, Goshtasp (Vishtaspa of the Avesta). Goshtasp is the first king to welcome the Iranian prophet Zarathustra to his court. Soon he converts to Zoroastrianism, making it the official religion of his kingdom. His queen, courtiers, and high officials follow their royal master and convert to the new religion. Aside from King Goshtasp, the greatest and the most enthusiastic supporter of Zarathustra is Prince Esfandiyar, who is designated as the successor to his father. In return for his enthusiastic support, Zarathustra blesses Esfandiyar and provides the young prince with a talisman that is designed to protect him from any harm. Having been blessed by Zarathustra and enjoying the protection of a talisman given to him by the great prophet convinces the brave, strong, and courageous Esfandiyar of his own invincibility. Esfandiyar’s rise to power and prominence coincides with an invasion of Iran by the armies of Turan. In the first battle between the two powers, the Iranians suffer a humiliating defeat at the hands of the Turanians. The Iranian king Goshtasp loses several of his sons as well as his brother, Zarir, on the battlefield. Desperate to rescue his kingdom from foreign occupation, Goshtasp appeals to his son Esfandiyar for assistance. In return for leading the Iranian army to victory in the upcoming campaign against the Turanians, Goshtasp promises his ambitious crown prince the throne of Iran. Overjoyed by the prospect of seizing the throne, Esfandiyar agrees to lead the Iranian army against Arjasp, the king of Turan. When the battle is joined, Esfandiyar and his army score an impressive victory. Esfandiyar returns to his father expecting to receive the crown of Iran, but King Goshtasp is not willing to abdicate. Instead, the Kayanian monarch dispatches his crown prince on a mission to promote and propagate Zoroastrianism. Esfandiyar accomplishes the task of spreading the teachings of the great prophet Zarathustra and returns home once again with the hope that he would ascend the throne as the new king of Iran. Sensing the rising tension with his father, Esfandiyar decides to leave the royal palace for a hunting expedition together with his son, Bahman. In his absence, the courtiers who are aware of Goshtasp’s resentment of Esfandiyar accuse the crown prince of sedition. They claim that Esfandiyar intends to overthrow the king and replace him on the throne. Meanwhile, Esfandiyar is warned against returning to his father’s palace, but he refuses to abandon his dream of capturing the throne. Once he has returned to the court, however, Esfandiyar is accused by his father of sedition and conspiracy. Goshtasp orders his henchmen to detain and imprison his crown prince, who is sent in chains to a faraway fortress. With his ambitious son out of the picture, Goshtasp embarks on a journey to promote Zoroastrianism, which he had adopted as the religion of his kingdom. The Turanians, who have received intelligence about Esfandiyar’s imprisonment, use the golden opportunity handed to them by Goshtasp to attack Iran. They sack the city of Balkh, killing a large number of Zoroastrian priests and destroying the fire temple in which they were performing their religious rituals. They also kill the father of Goshtasp, the former monarch Lohrasp, and take the daughters of the reigning king as hostages back with them to Turan. Once again, Goshtasp panics and sends his wise minister, Jamasp, to free Esfandiyar and implore him to return and lead the Iranian army against the Turanians. And once again, Goshtasp promises that he will relinquish the throne if Esfandiyar assumes the leadership of the kingdom’s army. At first Esfandiyar refuses to return but, under relentless pleas from Jamasp, agrees to lead the army in its next campaign against the Turanians. Once again, Esfandiyar triumphs over the Turanian king Arjasp, who flees the battlefield. Esfandiyar returns to his father’s court with the news of his great victory over the T
uranians, expecting his father to place the Kayanian crown on his head. King Goshtasp, however, reminds his crown prince that his victory was not complete, because the two princesses of the royal family, Homai and Behafarid, remain in captivity. Esfandiyar agrees to rescue his sisters. In a difficult journey to the fortress where his sisters are held, Esfandiyar endangers his life repeatedly, facing ferocious beasts and dragons. Once he has reached the fortress, he resorts to a ruse. By disguising himself as a traveling merchant who is merely interested in selling his goods, Esfandiyar finds his way into the well-guarded fortress. During his stay at this fortress, he wins the confidence of King Arjasp. Esfandiyar convinces the unsuspecting Turanian monarch to allow him to organize a large banquet on the roof of the royal palace. The fires lit for the banquet are used as a signal to Esfandiyar’s brother, Pashutan (Pashotan), to storm the fortress. As Pashutan moves against the walled city, Esfandiyar seizes the royal palace from within, killing the Turanian monarch. With Arjasp eliminated, the victorious Esfandiyar opens the gates of the fortress to his brother and the Iranian army. With Turan defeated and its king killed, Esfandiyar is prepared to replace his father and ascend the throne of Iran. Goshtasp organizes a large banquet celebrating his son’s victory over the Turanians, but he disappoints Esfandiyar by refusing to utter any hints about the immediate future of the throne. Angry, outraged, and deeply wounded, Esfandiyar appeals to the queen, Katayun. Katayun pleads with Esfandiyar to remain patient and not betray his father, advice that enrages the Kayanian crown prince. Meanwhile, the cunning and devious Goshtasp, who is not willing to abandon the throne, asks his minister, astrologer, and confidant, Jamasp, to probe into the horoscope of Esfandiyar and unveil the secret of how his crown prince would die. Once he has examined the horoscope of Esfandiyar, Jamasp informs the king that his crown prince will die at the hands of the great hero Rostam, who lives in Zabol, the capital of Sistan, in present-day eastern Iran. Thus, when Esfandiyar appears in front of his father demanding that he be allowed to ascend the throne, Goshtasp informs him that he will become the king when he has defeated and killed the great hero Rostam, the son of Zal, the ruler of Sistan. Goshtasp claims that Rostam is an ambitious and popular knight who does not obey royal authority and should therefore be eliminated because he poses a threat to the security of his kingdom. Esfandiyar is not deceived by his father. He accuses Goshtasp of trying to get rid of him by forcing an unnecessary confrontation with Rostam. Despite his doubts and reservations, however, Esfandiyar decides to carry out his father’s order. He marches to Zabol, the seat of power for the kingdom of Sistan, which is ruled by the legendary hero Zal and his son, Rostam. Esfandiyar sends a message to Rostam that he has traveled to Sistan to take the great warrior back with him to King Goshtasp as his captive. Rostam is shocked by the message from Esfandiyar, because until then he had never felt anything but respect and admiration for the Kayanian crown prince. To appease Esfandiyar and avoid a violent confrontation, Rostam adopts a conciliatory approach. With kindness and humility he responds to Esfandiyar by sending a message in which he begs for a meeting so they can resolve their differences peacefully. Esfandiyar is, however, unmoved: he has become doggedly determined to carry out his father’s order. Despite repeated pleas from Rostam, Esfandiyar insists that either Rostam return with him as a prisoner to King Goshtasp’s capital or that they fight on the battlefield to resolve their conflict. Rostam, a proud hero, cannot allow himself the indignity of being treated as a captive and being dragged in chains to King Goshtasp, where an unpredictable fate awaits him. Left with no other alternative, Rostam prepares himself for battle with Esfandiyar. In the first confrontation between the two knights, Rostam quickly realizes that despite his experience in fighting and defeating numerous demons, dragons, and warriors, he is no match for the brilliant crown prince, whose exceptional talents dazzle the warriors on both sides. Aside from Rostam and Esfandiyar, the knights accompanying the two warriors also become engaged in fighting. The battles between the two warring parties are bloody and heart wrenching. Princes and knights from both sides fall and die on the battlefield, including two of Esfandiyar’s sons who had traveled with their father to Zabol. Rostam and his legendary horse Rakhsh are also gravely wounded from Esfandiyar’s sharp arrowheads, which pierce body armor designed to protect the knight and his steed. Rostam tries desperately to reciprocate by shooting arrows at Esfandiyar’s body, but they prove to be ineffective because the body of the Kayanian prince is invincible, for he has been blessed by the prophet Zarathustra.