The Persian Empire

by Kia, Mehrdad;

  The king of Iran, Kay Kavus, dispatches a search team led by his most trusted commander, Gēv, to locate the king’s grandson, Kay Khosrow, and return him to Iran. After seven years of searching and numerous near-death experiences, the capable Gēv finds Kay Khosrow and his mother and transports them back to Iran. Kay Khosrow and Farangis are welcomed by Kay Kavus, who designates his grandson as the crown prince and his successor to the throne. To avenge his father’s death, Kay Khosrow organizes an army, which includes such prominent heroes of his time as Rostam and Gēv, and marches against his maternal grandfather, Afrasiyab, the king of Turan. The Iranians and Turanians fight numerous battles. Gēv displays extraordinary courage and wisdom throughout the campaign. In the process he kills the son-in-law of the Turanian king who had murdered his brother, Bahram. Gēv also defeats Goruy Zereh, the murderer of Prince Siyavash on the battlefield. Soon the Iranians, led by Kay Khosrow and the greatest of Iran’s legendary heroes, Rostam, manage to defeat and kill the tyrannical Turanian monarch, Afrasiyab.

  After the death of Kay Kavus, Kay Khosrow ascends the throne of Iran. At the age of 60, Kay Khosrow shocks his subjects by announcing that he has decided to voluntarily abdicate the throne. Before departing his kingdom, he appoints a member of the Kayanian ruling family, Lohrasp, as his successor and the next king of Iran. Kay Khosrow then bids farewell to the tearful crowd that has gathered to witness the departure of their beloved monarch. In one of the most moving sections of the Shahnameh [Book of Kings], the Iranian epic poet Ferdowsi describes the departure of Kay Khosrow, accompanied by five of Iran’s most distinguished heroes, including Gēv. The five heroes remain with their king until he meets Sorush, the angel of reckoning and death. Once Kay Khosrow disappears from their sight, Gēv and the other four heroes begin to return home but encounter a snowstorm, which overwhelms and kills them. In the Pahlavi text Bundahishn, Gēv appears as Gīw, son of Godarz, and one of the immortals who will assist the promised Zoroastrian savior Saoshyant in his drive to renovate the universe (Pahlavi Texts, Part I: Bundahishn, 29.6). The story of Gēv as a knight and a hero may have been grounded in an actual historical personage of the same name who lived during the reign of the Parthian Arsacid dynasty (r. 247/238 BCE–224 CE).

  See also: Legendary Kings: Afrasiyab; Kay Kavus; Kay Khosrow; Siyavash

  Further Reading

  Khaleghi-Motlagh, Djalal. “Gēv.” Encyclopaedia Iranica, 2001, http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/gev.

  Pahlavi Texts, Part I: The Bundahishn. Translated by E. W. West. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1965.

  Yarshater, Ehsan. “Iranian National History.” In The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. 3(I), edited by Ehsan Yarshater, 359–480. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983.

  Goshtasp

  Goshtasp, who appears as Vishtaspa in the Avesta, the Zoroastrian holy book, is a king of the legendary Kayanian dynasty and the first monarch to accept the teachings of the prophet Zarathustra (Zoroaster). The Zoroastrian scriptures praise King Vishtaspa for his wisdom and benevolence. His name means “he who has many horses” (The Zend-Avesta, Part II: 77n2).

  In the Zoroastrian tradition, Vishtaspa is the king who welcomes the prophet Zarathustra to his court. Vishtaspa and his queen, Hutaosa, convert to Zoroastrianism. Vishtaspa agrees to act as Zarathustra’s patron and protector. Court officials in the service of Vishtaspa follow their royal master and accept the teachings of the Iranian prophet. The conversion of the royal family and the king’s ministers proves to be a turning point in the life and career of Zarathustra. Zarathustra remains at the court of Vishtaspa and establishes close political and familial ties with members of the royal court. For example, one of his daughters, Pouruchista, marries Jamasp, a high official at the royal court.

  In the oldest section of the Avesta, the Gathas, the prophet Zarathustra begs the great god Ahura Mazda to bestow upon King Vishtaspa the divine grace (The Zend-Avesta, Part III: The Gathas, Yasna, 28.8). In other parts of the Avesta, he appears as “the valiant” and “the tall” Kavi Vishtaspa “the Naotaride, the lord of the swiftest horses in these countries” (The Zend-Avesta, Part II: Aban Yasht, 101, 105, 108). In the Pahlavi text Bundahishn, Vishtaspa, the son of Kay Lohrasp, is associated with two of the three sacred fires of ancient Iran. Vishtaspa is credited with moving the sacred fire of Farnbag (Adur Farnbag) from Khwarazm (on the lower reaches of the Oxus River south of the Aral Sea) to Kabul in present-day Afghanistan as well as establishing the sacred fire of Burzin Mihr (Adur Burzin Mihr) on Mount Revand in Khorasan (Pahlavi Texts, Part I: 17.6, 17.8).

  In his Shahnameh [Book of Kings], Ferdowsi portrays Goshtasp as the crown prince of King Lohrasp, a monarch of the Kayanian dynasty. Goshtasp, who has become alienated from his father, leaves his father’s kingdom and travels west to the kingdom of Rum. Rum refers to Asia Minor, the core territory of the East Roman Empire. Living anonymously in Rum, Goshtasp fails to find employment. On the brink of impoverishment, he stumbles upon a gracious patrician who invites him to live at his home as a guest of honor. Meanwhile, the king of Rum is searching for a spouse for his eldest daughter, Katayun. In accordance with established tradition, the king throws a lavish reception and invites all the eligible princes and grandees, one of whom he hopes will be picked by his daughter as her future husband. The night before the banquet, Katayun dreams of a prince who will become her husband. When she attends her father’s banquet, however, she does not see the prince she had faced in her dream. Recognizing the disappointment of his daughter, the king arranges a second gathering to which he invites a larger number of eligible bachelors, including the sons of high government officials. With the encouragement of the nobleman who is hosting him, Goshtasp attends the second royal reception. As soon as Katayun sets her eyes on Goshtasp, she recognizes him as the man in her dream and hands him the bouquet of flowers she had prepared for her future husband. Unaware of Goshtasp’s royal lineage and stunned and angered by the decision of his daughter to select a foreigner as her spouse, the king threatens to kill Katayun. The intercession of courtiers, however, convinces the king to spare his daughter’s life. Instead, the enraged monarch expels Katayun from the palace. Banished and without a source of income, Goshtasp and Katayun are forced to live with the patron of Goshtasp, relying solely on the sale of a few pieces of jewelry that Katayun had taken with her at the time of her banishment. The situation changes suddenly, however, when the king of Rum observes the courage and brilliance of Goshtasp in athletic competitions. The king showers favors on Goshtasp, who dares to decry the monarch’s callous and heartless treatment of his daughter. The truth about the royal lineage of the Iranian prince is finally revealed when his brother Zarir arrives in Rum. The purpose of Zarir’s visit is to convince Goshtasp to return to his father’s court. Goshtasp agrees to return but only with Katayun as his wife. Having discovered the truth about Goshtasp’s royal lineage, the king of Rum apologizes to the Kayanian prince and showers his daughter with exclusive gifts and a large dowry. Once Goshtasp arrives at the court of his father, King Lohrasp, the aging monarch places the royal crown on his head and abdicates in favor of his son. From this union between Goshtasp, the crown prince of Iran, and Katayun, the princess of Rum, one of Iran’s most brilliant and tragic heroes, Esfandiyar, is born.

  It is during the reign of Goshtasp that the prophet Zarathustra arrives at the Kayanian court. Goshtasp welcomes the prophet and eventually converts to his religion. Following their royal master, the court dignitaries and high officials also convert to the new religion. Aside from King Goshtasp, the greatest and the most enthusiastic supporter of Zarathustra is Prince Esfandiyar, who is designated as the heir apparent. In return for his enthusiastic support, Zarathustra blesses Esfandiyar and provides the young prince with a talisman that is designed to protect him from any harm. Meanwhile, Iran is invaded by the armies of Turan. In the first battle between the two powers, the Kayanian army suffers a humiliating defeat at the hands of the Turanians. King Goshtasp loses several of his sons as well a
s his brother, Zarir, on the battlefield. Desperate to rescue his kingdom from foreign occupation, Goshtasp appeals to his son Esfandiyar for assistance. In return for leading an Iranian army to victory against the Turanians, Goshtasp promises his ambitious crown prince the Kayanian throne. Overjoyed by the prospect of seizing the throne, Esfandiyar agrees to lead his father’s army against Arjasp, the king of Turan. When the battle is joined, Esfandiyar and his army score an impressive victory. The victorious Kayanian prince returns to his father’s court confident that he will receive the diadem of kingship, but Goshtasp is not prepared to abdicate. Instead, he dispatches his crown prince on a mission to promote and propagate the teachings of the prophet Zarathustra. Esfandiyar accomplishes this mission with flying colors and returns home once again with the hope that he will ascend the Kayanian throne. Sensing the rising tension with his father, Esfandiyar leaves the palace for a hunting expedition accompanied by his son, Bahman. In Esfandiyar’s absence, the courtiers accuse the crown prince of sedition. They claim that Esfandiyar intends to overthrow his father and replace him on the throne. Esfandiyar’s allies warn him against returning to his father’s palace, but he refuses to abandon his dream of capturing the throne. Once he has returned to the court, however, Esfandiyar is accused by his father, Goshtasp, of sedition and conspiracy. Goshtasp orders his henchmen to detain and imprison his crown prince, who is sent in chains to prison. With his ambitious son out of the picture, Goshtasp embarks on a journey to promote Zoroastrianism, which he has adopted as the religion of his kingdom. The Turanians, who have received intelligence about Esfandiyar’s imprisonment, use the golden opportunity handed to them by Goshtasp to attack his kingdom. They sack the city of Balkh, killing a large number of Zoroastrian priests and destroying the fire temple in which they were performing their religious rituals. They also kill the father of Goshtasp, the former monarch Lohrasp, and take the daughters of the king as hostages back with them to Turan. Once again, Goshtasp panics and sends his wise minister, Jamasp, to free Esfandiyar and implore him to return and lead a Kayanian army against the Turanians. Once again Goshtasp promises that if Esfandiyar agrees to assume the leadership of the army, he will relinquish the throne. At first Esfandiyar refuses to return but, under relentless pleas from Jamasp, he returns and commands a Kayanian army against the Turanians. Once again Esfandiyar triumphs over the Turanian king Arjasp, who flees the battlefield. Esfandiyar returns to his father’s court with the news of his great victory over the Turanians, expecting his father to place the crown of the Kayanian kingdom on his head. Goshtasp, however, reminds his crown prince that his victory was not complete because the two princesses of the royal family, Homai and Behafarid, remain in captivity. Esfandiyar agrees to rescue his sisters. In a difficult journey to the fortress where his sisters are held, Esfandyiar risks his life, fighting and killing ferocious beasts and dragons. He eventually kills the Turanian monarch Arjasp and liberates his sisters. With the threat from Turan neutralized, Esfandiyar returns home, prepared to replace his father and ascend the Kayanian throne. Goshtasp organizes a lavish banquet celebrating his son’s victory over the Turanians but disappoints Esfandiyar by refusing to abdicate in his favor. Deeply wounded by his father’s dishonesty, Esfandiyar appeals to the queen, Katayun. Katayun pleads with Esfandiyar to remain patient and not betray his father, advice that enrages the Kayanian prince. Meanwhile, the cunning and devious Goshtasp, who is not willing to abandon the throne, asks his minister, astrologer, and confidant Jamasp to probe into the horoscope of Esfandiyar and unveil the secret of how his crown prince will die. Once he has examined the horoscope of Esfandiyar, Jamasp informs the king that his crown prince will die at the hands of the great hero Rostam, who lives in Zabol, the capital of Sistan in present-day eastern Iran. Thus, when Esfandiyar demands the Kayanian throne from his father again, Goshtasp informs him that he will become the king only after he has defeated and killed Rostam. Esfandiyar is not deceived by his father’s scheme. He accuses Goshtasp of trying to get rid of him by forcing an unnecessary confrontation with Rostam. Despite his doubts and reservations, however, Esfandiyar decides to carry out his father’s order and marches to Zabol. In the first confrontation between the two knights, Rostam quickly realizes that despite his experience in fighting and defeating numerous demons, dragons, and warriors, he is no match for the brilliant prince, whose exceptional talents are unmatched. Rostam and his legendary horse Rakhsh are gravely wounded from Esfandiyar’s sharp arrowheads, which pierce through body armor designed to protect the knight and his steed. Rostam tries desperately to reciprocate by shooting arrows at Esfandiyar’s body, but they prove to be ineffective because the body of the Kayanian prince is invincible, for he has been blessed by the prophet Zarathustra. Desperate to save his son from humiliation and death at the hands of Esfandiyar, Rostam’s father, Zal, appeals to the legendary bird Simorgh for assistance. As an infant, Zal was abandoned by his father Sam. Zal only survives after Simorgh carries him to her nest, where she raises him as one of her chicks. Zal is finally recovered by his father and brought back to Sistan, where he is appointed crown prince. Before leaving Simorgh, however, the bird gives him a handful of feathers, telling him to burn a feather when he is in desperate need of assistance and support. Zal burns one of Simorgh’s feathers, and when the bird appears, he explains the crisis that he and his son confront. Simorgh immediately attends to Rostam’s wounds, and she removes Esfandiyar’s arrows from his body. She then uses her healing techniques to revive Rostam’s horse, Rakhsh. Once she has healed their injuries, Simorgh reveals the secret of fighting and defeating Esfandiyar. The Kayanian crown prince can only be killed if Rostam cuts a branch of a tamarisk tree and converts it to an arrow by flattening it and then soaking it in wine, arming it with a sharp arrowhead, attaching feathers to its end, and finally discharging it at the eyes of Esfandiyar. The next day at dawn, Rostam, armed with his newly designed arrow, appears at the camp of Esfandiyar and calls on the warrior prince to meet him face-to-face. Remaining convinced of the necessity of reconciliation, Rostam pleads with Esfandiyar to end the hostilities. Rostam goes as far as promising the prince that he is willing to travel to the court of King Goshtasp, apologize for any past missteps, and submit himself to any punishment that he may deserve. Esfandiyar, however, repeats the same threatening and insulting statements he had uttered in their previous encounters. Recognizing that any reconciliation with Esfandiyar is an impossibility, Rostam draws his new arrow and discharges it against the prince, targeting his eyes. Struck by the arrow, Esfandiyar falls from his horse and dies shortly after. Before he dies, however, he makes Rostam promise that he will raise his son, Bahman, as his own son. Esfandiyar also blames his father, Goshtasp, for his death.

  Ferdowsi’s account in the Shahnameh contradicts the lineage of Esfandiyar as stated in the Avesta, the Zoroastrian holy book. The name of the mother of Esfandiyar in the Avesta is not Katayun but Hutaosa (The Zend-Avesta, Part II: Farvardin Yasht, 139; The Zend-Avesta, Part II: Ashi Yasht, 46), “she of the many brothers, of the Naotara house,” who begs of Vayu, the Iranian deity of wind, for a boon so that she “may be dear and loved and well-received in the house of the king Vishtaspa” (The Zend-Avesta, Part II: Ram Yasht, 35–36). The German scholar Friedrich Spiegel has shown the striking similarity between the story of Goshtasp in the Shahnameh and the story of Zariadres and Odatis. This story was featured among the Greek texts related to Persian customs and beliefs.

  See also: Legendary Kings: Esfandiyar; Lohrasp; Rostam

  Further Reading

  Ferdowsi. Shahnameh. Edited by Djalal Khaleghi-Motlagh. New York: Mazda Publishers, 1997.

  Ferdowsi, Abulqasem. Shahnameh. Translated by Dick Davis. New York: Penguin Classics, 2007.

  Moazami, Mahnaz. “Katāyun.” Encyclopaedia Iranica, 2013, http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/katayun.

  Pahlavi Texts, Part I: The Bundahishn. Translated by E. W. West. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1965.

  The Zend-Avesta, Part II: The S
irozahs, Yashts and Nyayish. Translated by James Darmesteter. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1965.

  The Zend-Avesta, Part III: The Yasna, Visparad, Āfrīngān Gāhs, and Miscellaneous Fragments. Translated by L. H. Mills. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1965.

  Hushang

  A king of the legendary Pishdadian dynasty. In the Avesta, the Zoroastrian holy book, Hushang or Hoshang appears as “Haoshyangha, the Paradhata” (The Zend-Avesta, Part II: Aban Yasht, 21; Ram Yasht, 7; Ashi Yasht, 26; Zamyad Yasht, 26). Paradhata, which appears later as Pishdad (Before Law), became the name of the legendary dynasty. In Zamyad Yasht, “Haoshyangha, the Paradhata,” is presented as the king of the seven regions of Earth, who rules “over the Daevas [Demons], the Yatus [Wizards], the Pairikas [Witches], the oppressors, the blind, and the deaf” and kills “two-thirds of the Daevas of Mazana and of the Varenya fiends” (The Zend-Avesta, Part II: Zamyad Yasht, 26). In the Pahlavi texts such as the Bundahishn, Hushang is identified as the son of Fravak, son of Siyamak, son of Mashya, son of Gayomard (Pahlavi Texts, Part I: Bundahishn, 31.1). Hushang is therefore a direct descendant of Gayomard (Gaya Maretan of the Avesta), the first man. The wise lord Ahura Mazda brings Gayomard into existence in Airyanem Vaejah or Eranvej (the Expanse of the Aryans/Iranians), the homeland of the Iranian people in great antiquity. Gayomard is killed by the evil spirit after 30 years. As he is dying, the seed of Gayomard falls to Earth. That seed is “purified by the light of the sun” and after 40 years gives birth to a rhubarb plant (Pahlavi Texts, Part I: Bundahishn, 15.1). It is from the stalks of this plant that the first man and woman, Mashya and Mashyanag, come into existence. According to the Pahlavi text Dadistan-i Dinik, Gayomard is destroyed but comes back to the world “as a man and a woman” (Pahlavi Texts, Part II: Dadistan-i Dinik, 37.82, 105n5). According to the scholar Biruni, the evil spirit Ahriman “devours” Gayomard “from the head, and when he had come as far as the testicles and the spermatic vessels in the loins, two drops of sperma fell down on the earth,” and “out of these drops grew two Ribas bushes [rhubarb plants] … from among which Mesha and Meshana sprang up, i.e. the Persian Adam and Eve” (Biruni: 107, 39). Mashya and Mashyanag eventually emerge as the ancestors of the human race and the parents of Siyamak, the father of Hushang, the founder of the Pishdadian dynasty. Hushang is credited with a number of important accomplishments, including the founding of the three sacred fires of ancient Iran. In Zad Sparam, it is written that “in the reign of Hoshang, … one night, half way, while admiring the fires, the fire-stands which were prepared in three places on the back of the ox, and in which the fire was, fell into the sea and the substance of that one great fire which was manifest, is divided into three, and they established it on the three fire-stands, and it became itself three glories whose lodgments are in the Farnbag fire [Adur Farnbag], the Gushnasp fire [Adur Gushnasp], and the Burzin-Mihr [Adur Burzin Mihr]” (Pahlavi Texts, Part I: Zad Sparam, 11.10).