The Persian Empire

by Kia, Mehrdad;

  Despite Zarathustra’s significance in the history of ideas, we do not know the date of his birth. Zoroastrian tradition as well as several authors of the Islamic era maintained that the Iranian prophet lived “258 years before Alexander.” This date has been rejected as erroneous by a majority of experts. One of the best-known scholars of Zoroastrianism, Mary Boyce, set the date of Zarathustra’s birth and lifetime for a period between 1700 and 1000 BCE, while other scholars prefer either the seventh or sixth century BCE. Neither do we know the birthplace of Zarathustra. The language of the Zoroastrian scriptures, as it appears in the Avesta, the holy book and the major text of Zoroastrianism, linguistically belongs to a family of eastern Iranian languages. This has led many scholars to conclude that Zarathustra was probably born somewhere in Central Asia.

  Zarathustra was born into the Spitaman clan. In Zoroastrian tradition, his father was Pourushaspa (Porushasp), who was himself a son of Paitirasp (Pahlavi Texts, Part I: Bundahishn, 32.1). Zarathustra’s mother was Dughda/Dugdow/Dughdhova, the Avestan word for “daughter” (Pahlavi Texts, Part I: Bundahishn, 32.10, 144n8). She was the daughter of Frahimrava/Fereahimruvana (Pahlavi Texts, Part I: Bundahishn, 32.10). The people among whom Zarathustra was born and raised were chiefly animal herders. As such, they lived in constant fear of attacks from raiding nomads who plundered and slaughtered their livestock.

  According to Zoroastrian tradition, Zarathustra became a priest at a young age. At the age of 30, he received a revelation to teach his fellow men to seek the path of truth by worshipping the creator of the world and the wise lord, Ahura Mazda. During the first decade of his ministry, Zarathustra did not manage to convert anyone but his cousin. His teachings attracted opposition from religious and secular elites, who harassed and insulted the young preacher, forcing him to flee persecution and search for a new home. Zarathustra was eventually received by Vishtaspa (Goshtasp), a king of the Kayanian dynasty, who accepted his teachings. Vishtaspa, along with his queen Hutaosa, eventually converted to Zoroastrianism and agreed to act as Zarathustra’s patron and protector. Court officials in the service of Vishtaspa followed their royal master’s example and accepted the teachings of the Iranian prophet. The conversion of the royal family and their associated government ministers was a turning point in the life and career of Zarathustra.

  The Zoroastrian scriptures praise King Vishtaspa for his wisdom and benevolence. Zarathustra remained at the court of Vishtaspa and established close political and familial ties with members of the royal court. For example, one of his daughters, Pouruchista, married Jamasp, a high official at the royal court. The Iranian prophet himself married several times. These marriages produced three daughters and three sons (Pahlavi Texts, Part I: Bundahishn, 32.5). The names of Zarathustra’s daughters appear as Freni, Thriti, and Pouruchista in the Avesta (Farvardin Yasht, 139) and as Fren, Srit, and Poruchist in Bundahishn (Pahlavi Texts, Part I: Bundahishn, 32.5). Zarathustra’s first son was Isadvastra, whose name appears as Isadvastar in the Zoroastrian religious book Bundahishn (Pahlavi Texts, Part I: Yasna, 23; Bundahishn, 32.5). The second son was Urvatadnara (The Zend-Avesta, Part I: Vendidad, 2; The Zend-Avesta, Part II: Farvardin Yasht, 98), who appears in the Bundahishn as Auravatadnar. The name of Zarathustra’s third son appears as Havrechitra in the Avesta and as Khurshedchihr in the Bundahishn (The Zend-Avesta, Part II: Farvardin Yasht, 98, 204n1). According to Zoroastrian tradition, Zarathustra’s first son, Isadvastar, became the Mobad of Mobads (literally the Priest of the Priests or the High Priest) and passed away in the 100th year of the religion (Pahlavi Texts, Part I: Bundahishn, 32.5). The second son, Auravatadnar, “was an agriculturalist,” while the third son, Khurshedchihr, became “a warrior” and “a commander” in “the army of Peshyotanu [Peshutan/Pashutan], son of King Vishtaspa [Goshtasp], and dwells in Kangdezh” (Pahlavi Texts, Part I: Bundahishn, 32.5). The occupations of Zarathustra’s three sons correspond with the three recognized social estates of ancient Iran: the priests, the warriors, and the agriculturalists.

  Zarathustra continued with his missionary activities until his death at the age of 77. According to several Persian sources of the Islamic era, Zarathustra was murdered by a Turanian general at the age of 77 while praying in a fire temple at Balkh, a city located in present-day northern Afghanistan.

  In the Gathas, the oldest remaining section of the Avesta, the Zoroastrian holy book, Zoroaster speaks to the great god Ahura Mazda and appeals to him for support and guidance. Ahura Mazda is represented as the all-seeing, wholly wise, and benevolent creator of Earth and the entire universe. Ahura means “lord,” and Mazda means either “wisdom” or “wise.” Ahura Mazda therefore means “the wise lord” or “lord wisdom.” The teachings of Zarathustra, as reflected in the Gathas, represent a form of monotheism, a religious perspective that emphasizes the supremacy of one god. In fact, Zarathustra does not mention any other gods. This omission has led some scholars to conclude that Zarathustra had discarded Indo-Iranian gods, including Mithra and Anahita, as deities worthy of veneration. However, in other sections of the Zoroastrian scripture, which were probably written many centuries after Zarathustra, Anahita and Mithra appear as powerful deities worthy of worship (yazatas). For example, among the Avesta’s 21 Yashts, or hymns, each venerating and paying homage to a particular Zoroastrian deity, Mihr Yasht is dedicated to Mithra, the protector of oaths, contracts, and covenants who was created by the supreme god Ahura Mazda to protect wide cattle pastures and waters. In Mihr Yasht, Mithra appears as “the lord of wide pastures, who has a thousand ears and ten thousand eyes, a yazata invoked by his own name” (The Zend-Avesta, Part II: Mihr Yasht, 1). Ahura Mazda informs the prophet Zarathustra that he had created “Mithra, the lord of wide pastures as worthy of sacrifice, as worthy of prayer as myself, Ahura Mazda” (The Zend-Avesta, Part II: Mihr Yasht, 1). Another Yasht, namely Aban Yasht, was devoted to veneration of the goddess of waters, Aredvi Sura Anahita, who was praised as “the wide-expanding, the health-giving,” “the life-increasing,” “the herd-increasing,” “the fold-increasing,” “the wealth-increasing,” and “the country-increasing” deity created by the great god Ahura Mazda (The Zend-Avesta, Part II: Aban Yasht, 1). Anahita was credited with making “the womb of all females pure for bringing forth,” making “all females bring forth in safety,” and putting “milk into the breasts of all females in the right measure and the right quality” (The Zend-Avesta, Part II: Aban Yasht, 2).

  FERDOWSI ON ZARATHUSTRA

  The life and career of the Iranian prophet Zarathustra (Zoroaster) has fascinated scholars through the ages. Historians, writers, and poets praised him as a great prophet, poet, and healer who after many years of teaching and preaching converted the Kayanian monarch Vishtaspa (Goshtasp) to his religion. The Persian epic poet Ferdowsi demonstrated his profound admiration and reverence for Zarathustra in his masterpiece, the Shahnameh [Book of Kings], which was composed over 1,000 years ago.

  Zardosht [Zarathustra] the prophet of the Most High, appeared in the land

  And he came before the Shah and instructed him

  And he went out in all the land

  And showed the people a new faith.

  And he purged Iran of the power of Ahriman [the evil spirit].

  He reared throughout the realm a tree with beautiful foliage,

  And men rested beneath its branches.

  And whoever ate of its leaves became learned

  in all that regards the life to come,

  but whoever ate of the branches

  became perfect in wisdom and faith.

  And Zardosht gave men the Zend Avesta,

  And he bade them obey its precepts

  If they would attain everlasting life.

  Source: Reprinted in Paul Kriwaczek, In Search of Zarathustra (New York: Vintage Books, 2004), 10.

  According to Zarathustra, the great god Ahura Mazda is the kind and benevolent creator of the universe, Earth, and everything that is good and beautiful. Like any other prophet, however, Zara
thustra is forced to explain the source of evil on Earth. If Ahura Mazda had created everything that was good, who was then responsible for the existence of evil? Given that Ahura Mazda, who is good, cannot be responsible for creating evil, Zoroastrianism attributes the existence of evil to a self-created demonic force or evil spirit, Angra Mainyu (i.e., Ahriman), who exists solely for the purpose of corrupting and destroying Ahura Mazda’s creations. Thus, while Ahura Mazda creates life, happiness, and prosperity, Angra Mainyu introduces death, deprivation, and decay, and while Ahura Mazda stands for truth and justice, Angra Mainyu defends falsehood, death, and destruction. The struggle between Ahura Mazda and Angra Mainyu and the battle between good and evil emerge as the core of Zoroaster’s teachings. The prophet stands with Ahura Mazda and the forces of truth, justice, and compassion, teaching and fighting against Angra Mainyu and his army of demonic forces and evildoers.

  See also: Legendary Kings: Goshtasp; Religion: Ahriman; Ahura Mazda; Avesta; Gathas; Primary Documents: Document 1; Document 2; Document 3; Document 32

  Further Reading

  Boyce, Mary. Textual Sources for the Study of Zoroastrianism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990.

  Duchesne-Guillemin, Jacques. The Western Response to Zoroaster. New York: Praeger, 1973.

  Gnoli, Gherardo. Zoroaster’s Time and Homeland: A Study on the Origins of Mazdeism and Related Problems. Naples: Istituto Universitario Orientale, 1980.

  Henning, W. B. Zoroaster: Politician or Witch-Doctor. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1951.

  Pahlavi Texts, Part I: The Bundahishn, Bahman Yasht, and Shayast La Shayast. Translated by E. W. West. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1965.

  Watson, Peter. Ideas: A History of Thought and Invention, from Fire to Freud. New York: Harper Perennial, 2005.

  Yamauchi, Edwin M. Persia and the Bible. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 1997.

  The Zend-Avesta, Part I: The Vendidad. Translated by James Darmesteter. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1965.

  The Zend-Avesta, Part II: The Sirozahs, Yashts, and Nyayish. Translated by James Darmesteter. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1965.

  RELIGION, RELIGIOUS BELIEFS, AND GODS AND GODDESSES

  OVERVIEW ESSAY

  This chapter includes entries on the religions and religious belief systems of pre-Islamic Iran. Ancient Iran was home to a variety of religious movements and traditions. The prophet of ancient Iran, Zarathustra (Zoroaster), who lived in great antiquity, is one of the most influential figures in the history of religious thought in the world. The set of teachings to which he and his followers introduced the world left a profound impact on Judaism, Christianity, and Islam as well as on Greek and Roman religious practices and thought. The concepts of good and evil, life after death, heaven and hell, and the last judgment, as well as the doctrine of the millennia and the idea of a savior who would appear to rescue his people from ignorance, oppression, and suffering, were all introduced to the world for the first time by the prophet Zarathustra. Zoroastrianism, the religion that was founded on his teachings, introduced fundamental ideas and beliefs that helped shape the world’s major faiths as we know them today.

  Zoroastrianism is a monotheistic religion; that is, it recognizes one supreme god. In his Gathas, which constitute the oldest section of the Avesta, the Zoroastrian holy scripture, Zoroaster taught that Ahura Mazda (Ohrmazd) was the great god who had created the universe, the heavens, and Earth. Ahura Mazda was also the source of order in the cosmos. Ahura means “lord,” and Mazda means either “wisdom” or “wise.” Thus, Ahura Mazda translates as either “the wise lord” or “the lord of wisdom.”

  Although it was a monotheistic religion, Zoroastrianism nonetheless incorporated some of the ancient belief systems of early Iranians. Mithra, the god of covenants and later the sun god, as well as Anahita (Anahid), the goddess of waters and fertility, were prominent figures in the early Iranian pantheon of gods, and they continued to appear in Zoroastrian tradition. At times they, and even Ahura Mazda, were anthropomorphized, that is, depicted as human beings. For example, at the Sasanian-era rock reliefs at Taq-e Bostan near the city of Kermanshah, the Persian monarch Khosrow II Parvez is shown flanked by two human figures. On the right is the great god Ahura Mazda, who is handing the new Persian king the diadem of power. To the left of the king stands Anahita, who is also depicted in human form. Temples thought to be dedicated to Anahita have been unearthed at various archaeological sites, including the Sasanian site at Bishapur. Anahita also served as the patron deity of the Sasanian royal family, who had been guardians of the temple of Anahita in the province of Fars before assuming the reins of imperial power. In Zoroastrian texts, Mithra is identified as the protector of oaths, contracts, and covenants who was created by the supreme god Ahura Mazda to protect wide cattle pastures and waters. Inscriptions from Achaemenid times mention Mithra but do not identify him with the sun. By the time the Persian Sasanians seized power in the third century CE, Mithra had emerged as the sun god, who was at times anthropomorphized. For example, on the rock reliefs at Taq-e Bostan, he is shown wearing a crown festooned by 12 rays of sun, holding a barsom bundle, and standing on a lotus flower as he oversees the investiture of the Sasanian monarch Ardashir II.

  According to Zoroaster, Ahura Mazda created the world through his holy spirit and active principle, Spenta Mainyu, and with assistance from six divine entities. Known as Amesha Spentas (Amshaspands), these entities represent the attributes of Ahura Mazda in the material and spiritual worlds. The Amesha Spentas (holy immortals) were brought into existence by Ahura Mazda to help him create the seven holy elements, namely the sky, Earth, water, plants, cattle, and fire. Ahura Mazda himself was the creator and the protector of man. Ahura Mazda and the holy spirit, Spenta Mainyu, together with the six holy immortals formed the Zoroastrian Heptad (Unit of Seven). In later Zoroastrian texts, each of the holy immortals is matched against an evil spirit who intends to attack and destroy divine creations. In addition to being part of the Zoroastrian Heptad, each of the holy immortals was recognized and venerated separately. Each had a month named for it and was celebrated with a festival of its own.

  Through the centuries, Zoroaster’s ideas and teachings gave rise to religious creeds and movements, which tried to use the teachings of Zoroastrianism as a means of reforming their society. The Iranian prophet Mani (216–276 CE), who is recognized as the founder of Manichaeism, and the religious reformer Mazdak, who appeared during the reign of the Sasanian monarch Kavad I (r. 488–496 and 499–531 CE), were both directly influenced by the teachings of Zoroaster. Another important response to the rise and prominence of Zoroastrianism was a heterodox religious movement called Zurvanism, which was dedicated to the worship of Zurvan, the god of infinite time. The adherents of Zurvanism worshipped the god of infinite time as the supreme architect of the universe. They believed that Zurvan was the father and creator of both Ahura Mazda, the god of goodness and light, and his opponent, the demonic Angra Mainyu or Ahriman, the spirit of destruction and evil.

  Adur

  The Middle Persian word adur means “fire.” The word appears as “Atar” in the Avesta, the Zoroastrian holy book. The words for fire in New Persian are azar and atash. Adur was the name of the ninth month of the year in the Zoroastrian calendar. Azar is also the name of the ninth month of the year in the Iranian calendar. Fire was considered by Zoroastrians as one of the holiest of all God’s creations and “the son of Ahura Mazda”: “To Atar, the son of Ahura Mazda; to the Glory and to the Weal, made by Mazda; to the Glory of the Aryas, made by Mazda; to the awful Glory of the Kavis [kings of the Kayanian dynasty], Made by Mazda” (The Zend-Avesta, Part II: Sirozah, 1.9).

  Three holy fires were continuously maintained during the late Sasanian period: Adur Borzen Mihr (Azar Borzin Mehr), Adur Farnbag (Azar Farnbagh), and Adur Gushnasp (Azar Goshnasp). During the reign of the Sasanian dynasty (r. 224–651 CE), each of the three great sacred fires of Iran was identified with one of Sasanian society’s three social estates: priests, warr
iors, and the members of the third estate, namely the peasant farmers and artisans. Adur Borzen Mihr was designated as the fire of the third estate, or the laboring classes. Adur Borzen Mihr translates as “exalted is Mihr [Mithra].” No reliable date is known for its origins, nor is any trustworthy information available regarding its exact location. In the Pahlavi text Bundahishn, King Vishtaspa of the Kayanian dynasty is credited with establishing the sacred fire of Borzen Mihr on Mount Rivand in Khorasan (Bundahishn: 17.8). Other sources state that the fire was founded sometime in the late fifth or early fourth century BCE, and its location was the province of Khorasan, either at Mount Rivand or “Raevant in the vicinity of Lake Sovar” (Jackson: 100) near the present-day city of Neyshabur (Nishapur) or at Mount Mehr between the cities of Sabzevar and Shahrud. The Persian epic poet Daqiqi also traced the origins of Adur Borzen Mihr to the Kayanian monarch Goshtasp, who built a temple for this fire after he had converted to Zoroastrianism. Daqiqi also asserted that an ancient cypress tree graced the front of the temple and had been planted there by the prophet Zarathustra himself. The sacred fire remained an important center for pilgrimage and worship in ancient Iran until the arrival of Islam in the seventh century CE. It is not clear when or how Adur Borzen Mihr was destroyed.

  The second sacred fire of ancient Iran was Adur Farnbag. The origins of this fire most probably date back to the reign of the Sasanian dynasty. In the Bundahishn, King Vishtaspa of the Kayanian dynasty is credited with moving the sacred fire of Farnbag from Chorasmia or Khwarazm, on the lower reaches of the Oxus River south of the Aral Sea, to Kabul (in present-day Afghanistan) (Bundahishn: 17.6). Zoroastrian religious tradition claimed that the Adur Farnbag was originally established in Chorasmia, the region on the lower banks of the Oxus River (Amu Darya) south of the Aral Sea and was later brought to Fars in southern Iran during the reign of the legendary Kayanian monarch Goshtasp (the Avesta’s Vishtaspa). As noted above, each of the three great sacred fires of ancient Iran was identified with a particular social estate. Adur Farnbag was designated as the fire of the first of these estates, the priests and the men of religion. Adur Farnbag too remained an important center for pilgrimage and worship in ancient Iran until the arrival of Islam in the seventh century CE. After the collapse of the Sasanian Empire and the arrival of Islam, the Zoroastrian priests who were responsible for protecting Adur Farnbag divided the fire into two, taking one portion to Karian and another to Fasa, both located in the province of Fars in southern Iran. Eventually the fire was transported to a village near the city of Yazd in central Iran. The Adur Farnbag was eventually extinguished, but the empty temple that contained it continues to be held in great reverence by the Zoroastrians of Iran.