The Persian Empire
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Sunjana, Peshotun Dustoor Behramjee. The Dinkard. 1876; reprint, n.p.: CreateSpace, 2013.
Zaehner, R. C. Teachings of the Magi. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1976.
The Zend-Avesta, Part I: The Vendidad. Translated by James Darmesteter. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1965.
The Zend-Avesta, Part II: The Sirozahs, Yashts and Nyayish. Translated by James Darmesteter. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1965.
The Zend-Avesta, Part III: The Yasna, Visparad, Āfrīnagān, Gāhs, and Miscellaneous Fragments. Translated by L. H. Mills. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1965.
Ahura Mazda
Ahura Mazda, who appears in the Old Persian inscriptions of ancient Iran’s Achaemenid dynasts as Aura Mazda and in the Middle Persian inscriptions of Iran’s Sasanian monarchs as Ohrmazd, is an ancient Iranian god as well as the great divinity and the supreme god of Zoroastrianism. In his Gathas, which constitute the oldest section of the Avesta, the Zoroastrian holy scripture, the Iranian prophet Zarathustra (Zoroaster) taught that Ahura Mazda should be worshipped as the all-seeing, wholly wise, and benevolent creator of the universe and of heaven and Earth and as the source of order in the cosmos. Ahura means “lord,” and Mazda means either “wisdom” or “wise.” Thus, Ahura Mazda means either “the wise lord” or “lord wisdom.” It is not clear whether Ahura Mazda was recognized and worshipped as the supreme god before Zarathustra. Some scholars have maintained that before the emergence of Zoroastrianism, Ahura Mazda had been elevated as the wise lord and the supreme deity among some Iranian communities. Scholars of ancient Iran have noted that Zarathustra’s Ahura Mazda had an Indian counterpart in the Hindu god Asura, who appears in the sacred Hindu hymns of Rig Veda.
As the creator of the world, Ahura Mazda stood at the center of the universe. The natural world as well as humanity owed their origins and design to the great god and the six holy immortals who assisted him in the act of creating everything that was good and beautiful. These immortals were not independent divine beings or angels but rather various aspects of Ahura Mazda. Zarathustra teaches that the great god, Ahura Mazda, created the world through his holy spirit and active principle, Spenta Mainyu, and with assistance from six divine entities. Known as Amesha Spentas (Amshaspands), they represent the attributes of Ahura Mazda in the material and spiritual worlds. The Amesha Spentas were brought into existence by Ahura Mazda to help him create the seven holy elements, namely the sky, Earth, water, plants, cattle, and fire. Ahura Mazda himself was the creator and the protector of man. Ahura Mazda and the holy spirit, Spenta Mainyu, together with the six holy immortals, formed the Zoroastrian Heptad (Unit of Seven). In the Zoroastrian holy book the Avesta, the names of these six holy immortals appear as (1) Vohu Manah (Middle Persian: Vahman; New Persian: Bahman), the good purpose/good thought/good mind, the protector of cattle; (2) Asha Vahishta (Middle Persian: Ardvahisht; New Persian: Ordibehesht), the best truth/best order/best righteousness, the protector of fire; (3) Khshathra Vairya (Middle Persian: Shahrevar; New Persian: Shahrivar), the desirable dominion/power, the protector of the sky; (4) Spenta Armaiti (Middle Persian: Spendarmad; New Persian: Esfand), the holy or beneficent devotion, the protector of Earth; (5) Haurvatat (Middle Persian: Hordad; New Persian: Khordad), the wholeness/health/protection, the protector of water; and (6) Ameretat (Middle Persian: Amurdad; New Persian: Amordad or Mordad), immortality, the protector of plants. In later Zoroastrian texts each of the holy immortals is matched against an evil spirit who intends to attack and destroy divine creations. Each of the holy immortals was venerated separately. Each had a month named for it and was celebrated with a festival of its own.
The role of Ahura Mazda in Zoroastrian teachings posed a fundamental dilemma. If Ahura Mazda had created this world and all that is good in it, who then was responsible for the existence of evil? Zoroastrianism responded to this dilemma by teaching that although the wise lord Ahura Mazda was the creator of life and the cosmos, he had a powerful adversary in the evil spirit Angra Mainyu/Ahriman, who represented evil in the world. Ahura Mazda was the upholder of Asha (truth and justice) but was opposed by Angra Mainyu/Ahriman, who acted as the defender and protector of Druj (the lie). Ahura Mazda fought to defeat and destroy Angra Mainyu/Ahriman to build a world that was wholly good. Thus, the world was divided into two opposing and warring camps, which were engaged in an eternal conflict. Human beings were free to choose Ahura Mazda and the forces of truth or to choose Ahriman and the forces of the lie, or untruth.
Zoroastrianism rejected the idea that mankind was helpless at the hands of a predetermined fate. On the contrary, human beings were free to shape their fate and future. Those who chose Ahura Mazda and the path of truth over the lie, those who battled against the forces of evil and wickedness, thought the good thoughts, spoke the good words, and acted the good acts, were rewarded with eternal peace, joy, and a happy afterlife, while those who followed the evil spirit, Ahriman, and the forces of destruction and the lie were punished by a life of pain, torment, and suffering here on Earth and in the afterlife. Zoroastrianism carried the notion of the struggle between good and evil to a final battle in which Ahriman and the forces of darkness will be defeated and destroyed by Ahura Mazda and his army of good. With this victory by Ahura Mazda, the world would be renewed as an eternal home for the just and compassionate.
Scholars have debated whether in calling on his followers to worship Ahura Mazda, Zarathustra was introducing a form of monotheism (belief in one god). In his Gathas, or personal hymns and meditations, the Iranian prophet rejected the worship of other gods as a manifestation of evil thinking, but he also described Ahura Mazda as the source of all that is good but not as the creator of evil. The existence of evil was traced in the Avesta to the all-powerful and uncreated Angra Mainyu (Ahriman).
Ahura Mazda was mentioned as the supreme god by several Persian Achaemenid kings in their royal inscriptions. In his inscriptions, the Persian king Darius I (r. 522–486 BCE) praised Ahura Mazda as the great god who had created Earth, given happiness to humanity, and bestowed kingship upon him as the ruler of a vast and powerful empire. The Persian monarch presented himself as the representative of Ahura Mazda on Earth and as a lawgiver who stood and fought for truth against the forces of evil and the lie. Several successors of Darius repeated the same statement, but they also expressed their devotion to other Iranian gods such as Mithra, the god of covenants and oaths as well as the sun god, and Anahita, the goddess of waters.
Ahura Mazda appears as Ohrmazd in the inscriptions of the Sasanian dynasty, which seized power in 224 CE after Ardashir I overthrew the last Arsacid monarch, Artabanus IV. For example, the second Sasanian monarch, Shapur I, called his father, Ardashir I, and himself Mazda-worshipping kings. Ohrmazd also appeared on Sasanian rock reliefs, particularly those depicting royal investiture, as a majestic and beautifully dressed king who either stood or sat mounted on horseback opposite the Sasanian king. Under the hooves of Ohrmazd’s horse, Ahriman was depicted as a defeated, trampled, and crushed foe.
See also: Religion: Ahura Mazda; Amesha Spentas
Further Reading
Boyce, Mary. “Ahura Mazda.” Encyclopaedia Iranica, 1984, http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ahura-mazda.
Boyce, Mary. Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices. London: Routledge, 2001.
Jackson, A. V. William. Zoroaster: The Prophet of Ancient Iran. London: Forgotten Books, 2012.
Kent, Roland G. Old Persian. New Haven: American Oriental Society, 1950.
Yamauchi, Edwin M. Persia and the Bible. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1990.
West, M. L. The Hymns of Zoroaster. London: I. B. Tauris, 2010.
Airyanem Vaejah
Airyanem Vaejah or Airyena Vaejah, “the expanse” or “the territory” of “the Aryans/Iranians,” is the name for the ancient homeland of the Iranian people and the “holy land of Zoroastrianism” in the Avesta (The Zend-Avesta, Part I: Vendidad, 3n3). The name appears as Eranvej in Middle Persian and Iranvij in New Persian.
In the Vendidad, the lord wisdom, Ahura Mazda, speaks to the Iranian prophet Zarathustra (Zoroaster) about the 16 perfect lands he had created. The first of these is Airyanem Vaejah by the river “Daitya” (The Zend-Avesta, Part I: Vendidad, 1.3). The evil spirit, Angra Mainyu (Ahriman), who “is all death” and opposes Ahura Mazda and his creations, countercreates “the serpent in the river” and harsh winters (The Zend-Avesta, Part I: Vendidad, 1.3). Thus, far from being the perfect land created by Ahura Mazda, Airyanem Vaejah has “ten winter months” and only “two summer months; and those are cold for the waters, cold for the earth,” and “cold for the trees” (The Zend-Avesta, Part I: Vendidad, 1.4). Pahlavi texts such as the Bundahishn provide additional information on the frigid conditions in Eranvej: “And on the auspicious day Ataro of the month Din the winter arrives, with much cold, at Airan-vej; and until the end, in the auspicious month Spendarmad, winter advances through the whole world” (Bundahishn: 15.11). We are also told that the river Daitik, which originated from “Airan-vej” and went out “through the hill-country,” had more noxious creatures than any other river (Bundahishn: 20.13). Despite its harsh setting, which is blamed on the evil spirit, in the Zoroastrian tradition Airyanem Vaejah retains its role as the homeland of the Avestan people. It is in Airyanem Vaejah on the bank of the river Daraga that Zarathustra’s father Pourushaspa (Pahlavi: Porushasp) resides (Bundahishn: 20.32), and it is in Airyanem Vaejah that Zarathustra is born (The Zend-Avesta, Part III: Yasna, 9.13–14). Zarathustra introduces his religion in Airyanem Vaejah (Bundahishn: 32.3). Airyanem Vaejah is also the scene of legendary events, including the first creations of the first animal couple, “one pair of every single species,” as well as the first man, Gayomard (Bundahishn: 14.4). Ahura Mazda and his prophet Zarathustra also pay their respects to powerful deities in Airyanem Vaejah. Thus, the great god and his messenger offer a sacrifice to the goddess of waters, Aredvi Sura Anahita, in Airyanem Vaejah (The Zend-Avesta, Part II: Yasht, 5.17, 104).
Airyanem Vaejah as a concept and an actual geographical region has been subjected to a great deal of debate and speculation. Some scholars have dismissed Airyanem Vaejah as an actual geographical entity, arguing instead that it was a purely mythological and ideological construct. Other scholars, however, have attempted to associate Airyanem Vaejah with a concrete geographical region. The description of Airyanem Vaejah in the Vendidad has led some scholars to conclude that the land was located somewhere in the Russian steppes, while others have maintained that it was located somewhere in the southern regions of Central Asia or present-day northern Afghanistan in close vicinity to Sogdiana, Margiana, and Bactria, which were mentioned as the second, third, and fourth good lands and countries created by Ahura Mazda. Some went even further and argued that Airyanem Vaejah was Chorasmia (Khwarazm) on the lower reaches of the Oxus River south of the Aral Sea. Sometime during the Sasanian period (r. 224–651 CE), Airyanem Vaejah (i.e., Eranvej) became associated with northwestern Iran. Thus, the ninth-century Zoroastrian book Bundahishn identified Eranvej with Azerbaijan (Ataro-patakan/Adarbaigan) (Bundahishn: 29.12).
See also: Religion: Avesta; Vendidad
Further Reading
Biruni, Abu Rayhan. Athar ul-Baqiya. Translated by C. Edward Sachau as The Chronology of Ancient Nations. London: W. H. Allen, 1879.
Boyce, Mary. Textual Sources for the Study of Zoroastrianism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990.
Boyce, Mary. A History of Zoroastrianism, Vol. 1, The Early Period. Leiden: Brill Academic, 1996.
Boyce, Mary. Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices. London: Routledge Kegan and Paul, 2001.
Bundahishn. Edited by Mehrdad Bahar. Tehran: Tus Publications, 1991.
Bundahishn: The Sacred Books of the East; Pahlavi Texts. Translated by E. W. West. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1965.
Gnoli, G. The Idea of Iran. Rome: Istituto Italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente, 1989.
Henning, W. B. The Book of the Giants: The Fallen Angels and Their Giant Sons. London: Forgotten Books, 2007.
MacKenzie, D. N. “Ērān Wēz.” Encyclopaedia Iranica, 1998, http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/eran-wez.
The Zend-Avesta, Part I: The Vendidad. Translated by James Darmesteter. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1965.
The Zend-Avesta, Part II: The Sirozahs, Yashts and Nyayish. Translated by James Darmesteter. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1965.
The Zend-Avesta, Part III: The Yasna, Visparad, Āfrīnagān, Gāhs, and Miscellaneous Fragments. Translated by L. H. Mills. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1965.
Ameretat
According to the teachings of Zoroastrianism, the great god Ahura Mazda had created the world through his holy spirit and active agent, Spenta Mainyu, and with assistance from six holy immortals known as Amesha Spentas (Ameshaspands). Ameretat (immortality), which appears as Amurdad in Middle Persian and Amordad or Mordad in New Persian, is one of the six holy immortals. Ameretat was created by Ahura Mazda as the guardian and protector of plants. The Amesha Spentas represented the six attributes of the great god in the material world. Ahura Mazda brought these holy entities into existence to assist him with the creation of six holy elements, namely the sky, Earth, water, plants, cattle, and fire, and their protection from destruction by the evil spirit and its demonic allies. Ahura Mazda and his holy spirit, Spenta Mainyu, together with the Amesha Spentas constitute Zoroastrianism’s seven holy immortals, or the Heptad. Each holy immortal represents an attribute of its creator, Ahura Mazda. As holy immortals who bestow good on Earth, each is responsible for protecting an element of the world order. Each of the holy immortals is “a yazata, that is, a being to be worshipped in his own right, with prayers, sacrifices, and hymns of praise; and they should be duly invoked, each by his own name, for the special help which they have been created to give, as Zoroaster himself invokes them in the Gāthās” (Boyce: Ameša Spenta). Mordad (Amordad) is also the name of the fifth month of the year in the Iranian calendar.
See also: Cultures: Ab, Aban, Aban Mah; Religion: Adur; Ahriman; Ahura Mazda; Amesha Spentas; Anahita; Avesta; Mithra
Further Reading
Boyce, Mary. “Ameša Spenta.” Encyclopaedia Iranica, 1989, http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/amesa-spenta-beneficent-divinity.
Boyce, Mary. Textual Sources for the Study of Zoroastrianism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990.
Skjærvø, Prods Oktor. The Spirit of Zoroastrianism. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2012.
Zaehner, Richard Charles. The Dawn and Twilight of Zoroastrianism. New York: Putnam, 1961.
Amesha Spentas
According to the teachings of Zoroastrianism, the great god Ahura Mazda created the world through his holy spirit and active agent, Spenta Mainyu, and with assistance from six holy immortals known as Amesha Spentas (Amshaspands). These holy entities represent the attributes of Ahura Mazda in the material world. Ahura Mazda brought these holy immortals into existence to help him with the creation and protection of the seven creations, namely the sky, Earth, water, plants, cattle, and fire. Ahura Mazda himself through Spenta Mainyu is directly responsible for the creation of man. Ahura Mazda and his Spenta Mainyu, together with the six Amesha Spentas, constitute Zoroastrianism’s seven holy immortals, or Heptad. Each of the Amesha Spentas represents an attribute of its creator, the great and benevolent god Ahura Mazda. As divine immortals who bestow good on Earth, each is responsible for protecting an element of the world order.
The Amesha Spentas are Vohu Manah, Asha Vahishta, Khshathra Vairya, Spenta Armaiti, Haurvatat, Ameretat, and Spenta Mainyu. Vohu Manah, which appears as Vahman in Middle Persian and Bahman in New Persian, is associated with good mind, good thought, and good purpose. Vohu Manah is the guardian and protector of cattle. Asha Vahishta, which appears as Ardvahisht in Middle Persian and Ordibehesht in New Persian, is associated with best order, best truth, and best righteousness. Asha Vahishta is the guardian and protector of fire. Khshathra Vairya, which appears as Shahrevar in Middle P
ersian and Shahrivar in New Persian, is associated with desirable dominion and power. Khshathra Vairya is the guardian and protector of the sky. Spenta Armaiti, which appears as Spendarmad in Middle Persian and Esfand in New Persian, is associated with holy or beneficent devotion. Spenta Armaiti is the guardian and protector of Earth. Haurvatat, which appears as Hordad in Middle Persian and Khordad in New Persian, is associated with wholeness and health. Haurvatat is the guardian and protector of water. Ameretat, which appears as Amurdad in Middle Persian and Amordad or Mordad in New Persian, is associated with long life and immortality. Ameretat is the guardian and protector of plants. Ahura Mazda, through his holy spirit Spenta Mainyu, is associated with the creation of man.
Each of the holy immortals is matched against a daeva (demon) who intends to attack and destroy divine creations. The six chief demons who oppose the Amesha Spentas in the same relation as Angra Mainyu to Spenta Mainyu are Indra, who opposes Asha Vahishta and “turns men’s hearts from good works”; Sauru, who opposes Khshathra Vairya and “presides over bad government”; Naunghaithya, who opposes Spenta Armaiti and functions as “the demon of discontent”; Taura and Zairi, who “oppose Haurvatat and Ameretat and poison the waters and the plants”; and Akemmano, or “Bad Thought, who opposes Vohu Manah, Good Thought” (The Zend-Avesta, Part I: Vendidad, 10.9, 139n1). Each of the six Amesha Spentas was venerated separately, and each had a month named for it and was celebrated with a festival of its own (Boyce: Ameša Spenta).
See also: Religion: Ahriman; Ahura Mazda; Ameretat; Asha and Asha Vahishta; Haurvatat; Khshathra Vairya; Spenta Armaiti; Vohu Manah
Further Reading
Boyce, Mary. “Ameša Spenta.” Encyclopaedia Iranica, 1989, http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/amesa-spenta-beneficent-divinity.
Boyce, Mary. Textual Sources for the Study of Zoroastrianism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990.
Skjærvø, Prods Oktor. The Spirit of Zoroastrianism. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2012.