The Persian Empire
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Spenta Armaiti
One of the holy immortals in Zoroastrianism who acts as the protector of Earth. According to the teachings of Zoroastrianism, Ahura Mazda had created the world through his holy spirit, Spenta Mainyu, and with assistance from six holy immortals known as Amesha Spentas (Middle Persian: Ameshaspands). The Amesha Spentas represented the six attributes of the great god in the material world. Ahura Mazda brought these holy entities into existence to assist him with the creation and protection of six holy elements, namely the sky, Earth, waters, plants, animals, and fire, from destruction by the evil spirit and its demonic allies. Ahura Mazda and Spenta Mainyu, together with the Amesha Spentas, constitute Zoroastrianism’s seven holy immortals, or the Heptad. Each holy immortal represents an attribute of its creator. As bounteous and beneficent beings who bestow good on Earth, each is responsible for protecting an element of the world order. Each of the Amesha Spentas is “a yazata, that is, a being to be worshiped in his own right, with prayers, sacrifices, and hymns of praise; and they should be duly invoked, each by his own name, for the special help which they have been created to give, as Zoroaster himself invokes them in the Gāthās” (Boyce: Ameša Spenta). One of the six holy and beneficent immortals created by the great god Ahura Mazda to assist him with the act of creation was Spenta Armaiti (holy devotion), who appears as Spendarmad in Middle Persian and Esfand in New Persian. Spenta Armaiti, the holy immortal who represents righteous obedience, was brought into existence to protect Earth and preserve its fertility. The fifth day of every month and the 12th month of the Iranian calendar, are named after this yazata. Each of the six holy immortals has its own opponent who has been brought into existence by the evil spirit. The greatest adversary and opponent of Spenta Armaiti is Nanghithya, a demon and member of the army led by Angra Mainyu (Ahriman).
See also: Religion: Ahriman; Ahura Mazda; Amesha Spentas; Avesta
Further Reading
Boyce, Mary. “Ameša Spenta.” Encyclopaedia Iranica, 1989, http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/amesa-spenta-beneficent-divinity.
Boyce, Mary. Textual Sources for the Study of Zoroastrianism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990.
Skjærvø, Prods Oktor. The Spirit of Zoroastrianism. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2012.
Zaehner, Richard Charles. The Dawn and Twilight of Zoroastrianism. New York: Putnam, 1961.
Tishtrya
The ancient Iranian deity of rains. As the divine being (yazata) who represents rains, Tishtrya fights Apaosha, the witch of drought, to liberate the waters of the world, which are held in an ocean called Vourukasha. The ultimate purpose of this fight is to release the waters contained in Vourukasha so that Earth and everything beautiful, which Ahura Mazda has created, can survive. When the two clash on the battlefield Tishtrya is defeated, but on the second confrontation the yazata triumphs over his challenger. The victory of Tishtrya allows the waters contained in Vourukasha to be liberated and divided among the countries of the world. Tishtrya also fights against the female demon Duzhyairya, the witch of bad harvest or bad year. In the Avesta, the Zoroastrian holy book, the eighth Yasht (Hymn) devoted to a divine being is dedicated to Tishtrya. Tishtrya is depicted as a deity who rises from the source of all waters, the Sea of Vourukasha, who distributes Earth’s waters among the countries. The deity of rains allows water to pour upon Earth and the fields. In the Iranian calendar the fourth of the month is Tir, named after the deity Tishtrya. Ancient Iranians celebrated this deity through a festival called Tiragan.
See also: Legendary Kings: Arash; Ahura Mazda; Avesta
Further Reading
Panaino, Antonio. “Tištrya.” Encyclopaedia Iranica, 2005, http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/tistrya-2.
The Zend-Avesta, Part I: The Vendidad. Translated by James Darmesteter. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1965.
The Zend-Avesta, Part II. Translated by James Darmesteter. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1965.
Vayu
The ancient Iranian deity of wind who is presented in the Avesta, the Zoroastrian holy book, as “the bright and glorious” deity who goes “through the two worlds, the one which the Good Spirit has made and the one which the Evil Spirit has made” (The Zend-Avesta, Part II: Ram Yasht, 42–43). Vayu resides in the realm that lies between Ahura Mazda and Angra Mainyu, between good and evil, the light and darkness. As Vayu, “the atmosphere, is the place in which the conflict of the two principles takes place, one part of him belongs to the Evil Spirit,” while the other part chases the demons with its sharp spear and golden weapons to protect the good creations of Ahura Mazda (The Zend-Avesta, Part II: Darmesteter, 250n5). The first part of Ram Yasht enumerates the heroes and villains who sacrificed to Vayu. These include the great god Ahura Mazda, Haoshyangha Paradhata (Hoshang the Pishdad), Takhma Urupa (Tahmasp), Yima (Jamshid), Azhi Dahaka (Zahhak), Thraetaona (Fereydun), Keresaspa (Garshasp), Aurvasara, Hutaosa (the wife of King Vishtaspa), and Iranian maids (The Zend-Avesta, Part II: Ram Yasht, 2, 7, 11, 15, 19, 23, 27, 31, 35, 39).
See also: Religion: Ahura Mazda; Avesta
Further Reading
The Zend-Avesta, Part I: The Vendidad. Translated by James Darmesteter. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1965.
The Zend-Avesta, Part II: The Sirozahs, Yashts, and Nyayish. Translated by James Darmesteter. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1965.
Vendidad
The name Vendidad (Vīdēvdāt), which has been invariably translated as “the law against demons,” “antidemonic law,” “the law repudiating the demons,” or “the law against the evil beings,” is one of the major components of the Avesta, the Zoroastrian holy book. The name Vendidad is a corruption of “Vidaevadata” (Boyce: 2). Described by Zoroastrians as their book of laws, the Vendidad contains a body of rules, laws, and prescribed rituals. The Vendidad focuses primarily on the issue of pollution and provides a set of rules regarding purification. The first section of the Vendidad focuses on the creations of the great god Ahura Mazda and how the evil spirit Angra Mainyu corrupted them by giving birth to an army of destructive forces. In this section Ahura Mazda enumerates the lands he had created, beginning with Airyanem Vaejah, “The Expanse of the Aryans/Iranians” or the homeland of the Iranian people in great antiquity (The Zend-Avesta, Part I: Vendidad, 1.1).
THE PERFECT LANDS
In the Vendidad, the great god Ahura Mazda enumerates the 16 perfect lands, which he had created. These regions are believed to be the regions where the first Iranians settled. Of these 16 regions, the first is Airyanem Vaejah (The Expanse of the Aryans/Iranians), which appears as Eranvej in Middle Persian and Iranvij in New Persian. Airyanem Vaejah may be viewed as the mythological homeland of the Iranian people, although some scholars have attempted to designate a geographical definition for the region, which had 10 winter months and 2 summer months. The other regions that can be identified with some certainty are Sughda (Old Persian: Suguda; New Persian: Soghd), centered in Samarqand in present-day Uzbekistan; Mouru (Old Persian: Margu; New Persian: Marv/Merv), in present-day southern Turkmenistan; Bakhdhi (Old Persian: Bakhtri; New Persian: Balkh), in present-day northern Afghanistan; Haroyu (Old Persian: Haraiva; New Persian: Hari or Harirud), in present-day northwestern Afghanistan; Vehrkana (Old Persian: Varkana; New Persian: Gorgan), in present-day northern Iran; Harahvaiti (Old Persian: Harauvati; New Persian: Arghandab), in present-day southern Afghanistan; Haetumant (New Persian: Helmand); Rhagae (Old Persian: Raga; New Persian: Ray), in present-day northern Iran south of modern-day Tehran; Hapta Hindu (Old Persian: Hindava; New Persian: Hind), the Indus River Valley in present-day Pakistan; Vaekereta (Middle Persian: Kapul; New Persian: Kabul), in present-day central Afghanistan; Urva (Middle Persian: Meshan; New Persian: Mesene), in present-day southern Iraq and Kuwait; Varena (Middle Persian: Patashkhvargar or Deylam; New Persian: Mazandaran and Gilan); Rangha (Middle Persian: Arvastani Rum; New Name: Eastern Mesopotamia); Nisaya, perhaps ancient Nisa in present-day southern Turkmenistan; and Kakhra (unknown).
Section 2 of the Ven
didad is devoted to Yima, who appears as King Jamshid of the Pishdadian dynasty in the legendary history of Iran. This section is divided into two parts. In the first part, the great god Ahura Mazda invites Yima to receive the divine law and introduces it to humanity. When Yima turns down the request, the god demands that Yima protect his divine creations and ensure their prosperity. Yima acts accordingly and protects all god’s creations from disease and death. As prosperity reigns, the population of Earth increases. In the second part, which has a striking resemblance to the biblical story of Noah and his ark, Yima is told by god to collect the best representatives of all animals and plants and provide them with shelter so they would survive an approaching winter that will destroy every living creature. The third chapter of the Vendidad deals with what comforts and discomforts Earth. This section ends with a subsection forbidding the burial of the dead and an enumeration of the penalties for burying the corpse of a human or a dog in the earth (The Zend-Avesta, Part I: Vendidad, 3.4). Section 4 is devoted exclusively to civil and penal laws. Sections 5 to 13 of Vendidad focus primarily on the religious rituals, which have to be observed by the believer to deal with pollution, uncleanliness, and impurity arising from the dead. Sections 13 and 14 focus on dogs, their role and importance in a community’s daily life, and the severe penalties for hurting, injuring, and killing them. As Zoroastrians believed that all their laws were conveyed as revelations from Ahura Mazda to the prophet Zarathustra, the entire text of the Vendidad is structured as a dialogue between the great god and his prophet (Malandra: Vendidad).
See also: Religion: Ahriman; Ahura Mazda; Airyanem Vaejah; Avesta
Further Reading
Boyce, Mary. Textual Sources for the Study of Zoroastrianism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990.
The Hymns of Zoroaster. Translated by M. L. West. London: I. B. Tauris, 2010.
Jamasp, Dastoor Hoshang. Vendidâd: Avestan Text with Pahlavi Translation, Vol. 1. Bombay: n.p., 1907.
Malandra, William W. “Vendidad.” Encylopaedia Iranica, 2006, http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/vendidad.
The Zend-Avesta, Part I: The Vendidad. Translated by James Darmesteter. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1965.
The Zend-Avesta, Part II: The Sirozahs, Yashts, and Nyayish. Translated by James Darmesteter. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1965.
Vohu Manah
Vohu Manah, meaning “good mind/good thought/good purpose,” is one of the holy and bounteous immortals (i.e., Amesha Spentas) who were brought into existence by the wise lord Ahura Mazda to assist him with creating the six holy elements, namely the sky, Earth, water, plants, cattle, and fire. Ahura Mazda himself is the creator and the protector of man. Ahura Mazda and his holy spirit, Spenta Mainyu, together with the six holy immortals constitute the Zoroastrian Heptad (Unit of Seven). Vohu Manah is the holy immortal responsible for guarding the cattle. In the Gathas, the Iranian prophet Zarathustra states that the righteous path leading the faithful to the great god Ahura Mazda goes through Vohu Manah (The Zend-Avesta, Part III: Yasna, 28, 29, 30). Zoroastrians interpret this statement as meaning that exercising the right moral choice with the assistance of the good mind can bring one closer to Ahura Mazda. As with the other five holy immortals, Vohu Manah is also matched against an evil spirit who intends to attack and destroy divine creations. The evil spirit opposed to Vohu Manah is Akem-mano or Aka Manah (Bad Thought). Like the other five Amesha Spentas, Vohu Manah is also venerated separately; he has a month named for him and is celebrated with a festival of his own. Vohu Manah appears as Vahman in Middle Persian and Bahman in New Persian. In the Iranian calendar today, Bahman is the name of the 11th month of the year, which corresponds with January–February.
See also: Cultures: Ab, Aban, Aban Mah; Religion: Adur; Ahriman; Ahura Mazda; Amesha Spentas; Anahita; Avesta; Mithra
Further Reading
Boyce, Mary. “Ameša Spenta.” Encyclopaedia Iranica, 1989, http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/amesa-spenta-beneficent-divinity.
Boyce, Mary. Textual Sources for the Study of Zoroastrianism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990.
Skjærvø, Prods Oktor. The Spirit of Zoroastrianism. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2012.
Zaehner, Richard Charles. The Dawn and Twilight of Zoroastrianism. New York: Putnam, 1961.
The Zend-Avesta, Part III: The Yasna, Visparad, Āfrīngān, Gāhs, and Miscellaneous Fragments. Translated by L. H. Milla. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1965.
Yazatas
Deities or lesser gods in Zoroastrianism, who have been created by the great god Ahura Mazda (the lord of wisdom) to assist him with the maintenance, preservation, and protection of the world order. In performing their responsibility as the supporters of Ahura Mazda, the yazatas act as an army of angelic forces who fight against the evil spirit Angra Mainyu (Ahriman) and his army of demons who have been created to corrupt and destroy the creations of Ahura Mazda. The assistance provided by the yazatas is essential in supporting man in his struggle against demonic forces as he attempts to protect his body and soul from evil. The prophet Zarathustra venerated the yazatas and appealed to them to grant him strength, health, and vitality so he could achieve his mission as the messenger of the great god Ahura Mazda. Those who follow the teachings of Zarathustra mirror the example set by their great prophet and venerate the yazatas through prayers and sacramental offerings, in expectation of gaining health, happiness, and prosperity from a whole array of yazatas. There are numerous yazatas who are mentioned in the Avesta, the Zoroastrian holy book. Some of the most important yazatas are Anahita, the goddess of waters; Mithra, the guarantor of oaths and alliances as well as the sun god of ancient Iran; Verethraghna (Wahran, Bahram), the warrior god of victory; Tishtrya (Tir), the deity of rains; Rashnu, the genius of truth; and Sraosha (Sorush), the angel of divine worship.
See also: Religion: Ahura Mazda; Anahita; Avesta; Bahram; Mithra; Tishtrya
Further Reading
Bahar, Mehrdad. Bundahishn. Tehran: Tus Publications, 1991.
The Sacred Books of the East: Pahlavi Texts. Translated by E. W. West. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1965.
The Zend-Avesta, Part I: The Vendidad. Translated by James Darmesteter. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1965.
The Zend-Avesta, Part II: The Sirozahs, Yashts, and Nyayish. Translated by James Darmesteter. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1965.
Zurvan
The god of infinite and boundless time in ancient Iran, Zurvan also appears as the father of Ahura Mazda (Ohrmazd), the god of wisdom and the principle of goodness, and Angra Mainyu (Ahriman), the demonic force and the principle of evil. As the primordial god in Iranian religious thought, Zurvan may have been worshipped before the advent of Zoroastrianism.
Because he is androgynous, that is, genderless, Zurvan had to perform sacrifices for 1,000 years before being able to produce his children, Ahura Mazda and Ahriman. With children representing the two opposites, Zurvan himself is regarded as a neutral god, one for whom there is no distinction between good and evil. A supreme and transcendent being, Zurvan is the highest god and the true lord of the universe. A heterodox religious movement called Zurvanism was dedicated to the worship of Zurvan. The adherents of Zurvanism worshipped the god of infinite time as the supreme architect of the universe. As already noted, Zurvan was the father and creator of Ahura Mazda, the god of goodness and light, and Ahura Mazda’s opponent, the demonic Angra Mainyu or Ahriman, the evil spirit.
In his teachings, the prophet Zarathustra (Zoroaster) called upon his followers to worship Ahura Mazda as the wise lord and the supreme creator and architect of the universe. Zoroastrianism also taught that Ahura Mazda was in a state of constant and fierce struggle against Ahriman, the demonic force who had brought evil, darkness, and destruction to the world. This dualism presented a fundamental dilemma: if Ahura Mazda was the all-powerful architect of the universe, was he also the creator of Ahriman? If Ahura Mazda had created evil, then how could he be worshipped as the god of light who had only brought goodnes
s to the world? And if he had not created evil, who was responsible for the existence of good and evil and setting them in a struggle to dominate the world?
The introduction of the new primal and eternal being called Zurvan Akarana (the infinite, unlimited, and boundless time) resolved this dilemma. Those who worshipped Zurvan believed that everything in the world emanated from the god of infinite time. As the god of eternity, he did not have a beginning or an end and could not be comprehended by human mind and intellect. He was the father and the mother of the two conflicting principles, or the two opposing twins Ahura Mazda (the good) and Ahriman (the evil). These two spirits were engaged in a long and fierce battle. The struggle between the two sons of Zurvan was to conclude with the victory of Ahura Mazda and the defeat and expulsion of Ahriman.
Although the Zoroastrian religious establishment viewed it as a heresy, Zurvanism was widely practiced in Greater Iran while at the same time leaving a profound impact on religions thought during the Seleucid, Parthian, and Sasanian periods. The belief in Zurvan as the father and creator of Ahura Mazda and Ahriman was so widespread during the Sasanian era that Mehr Narseh, the powerful and influential chief minister (wuzurg farmadār) of the Sasanian monarchs Yazdegerd I (r. 399–421 CE), Bahram V (r. 421–439 CE), Yazdegerd II (r. 439–457 CE), and Peroz (r. 459–484 CE), held to Zurvanism as the fundamental tenet of his beliefs (Frye: 321). Zurvan was also part of the pantheon of gods worshipped in Sogdiana, the region lying between the Oxus River (Amu Darya) to the south and the Jaxartes River (Syr Darya) to the north, with its central region located in the Zarafshan and Kashka Darya River Valleys. The Sogdian pantheon “is fascinating for the identification of local with foreign deities,” writes historian and author Richard Nelson Frye; thus, Zurvan can be equated to Brahma, one of the major gods of Hinduism (Frye: 352). Zurvanism also influenced the teachings of the Iranian prophet Mani (216–276 CE). The ideas of Mani were founded on Iranian dualism, which believed in the constant struggle between the good and the evil, or between Ahura Mazda and Ahriman. According to Mani, Ahura Mazda and Ahriman were twin brothers who were created by the supreme god Zurvan. As the father of Ahura Mazda and Ahriman, Zurvan stood above and beyond the two opposing and hostile sons.