The Persian Empire

by Kia, Mehrdad;

  15. When spring with its warmth was melting the snow, and crops were now, after the long period of frost, beginning to develop and grow, and men, too were resuming their activity, Arsaces [Phraates II Arsaces VII (r. 139/138–128 BCE)] wishing to feel out his enemies, sent envoys to discuss terms of peace. In reply Antiochus told them that he would agree to the peace if Arsaces would release his brother Demetrius from captivity and send him home, if he would withdraw from the satrapies that he had seized by force, and if, retaining only his ancestral domain, he would pay tribute. Arsaces, taking offense at the harshness of the reply, placed an army in the field against him.

  16. His friends pleaded with Antiochus not to join battle with the far more numerous Parthian hordes, since they, by taking refuge in the mountainous country that overlooked them, with its rough terrain, could neutralize the threat of his cavalry. Antiochus, however, completely disregarded their advice, remarking that it was disgraceful for the victorious to fear any ventures of those whom they had previously defeated. So, exhorting his men to the fray, he awaited with stout heart the onslaught of the barbarians.

  Source: Diodorus Siculus, translated by C. H. Oldfather (London: William Heinemann, 1933), XXIV:15–17.

  26. TWO ACCOUNTS OF THE PARTHIAN EMPIRE

  For centuries before the arrival of Islam, China and Iran enjoyed a very close diplomatic, commercial, and cultural relationship. During the reign of the Arsacid monarch Mithridates II (Mithradata II) (r. 124/123–88/87 BCE), an envoy of Emperor Wudi (r. 141–87 BCE) of China’s Han dynasty (r. 206 BCE–220 CE) arrived at the Arsacid court. The envoy returned to China accompanied by representatives of the Parthian monarch bearing gifts of ostrich eggs and conjurers. These negotiations were followed by the establishment of the first intercontinental trade route between China, Iran, and Rome. Mithridates II sent ambassadors to Rome and China to expand and augment this international trade route. The so-called Silk Road, which in fact consisted of numerous trade routes, not only created a direct commercial link between China, Central Asia, Iran, and Rome but also heralded the exchange of goods, ideas, and technology between East Asia, the Near East, and Europe. Direct economic ties with China allowed plants, spices, foodstuffs, medicine, and musical instruments as well as new ideas and religious beliefs from India and Iran to travel eastward. The two excerpts below describe the general geographical and cultural characteristics of the Arsacid (Parthian) Empire from a Chinese and a Roman perspective.

  A Chinese Account of the Parthian Empire

  Anxi [Parthia] is situated several thousand li west of the region of the Great Yuezhi. The people are settled on the land, cultivating the fields and growing rice and wheat. They also make wine out of grapes. They have walled cities like the people of Dayuan [Farghana], the region containing several hundred cities of various sizes. The kingdom, which borders the Gui [Oxus River], is very large, measuring several thousand li square. Some of the inhabitants are merchants who travel by cart or boats to neighboring countries, sometimes journeying several thousand li. The coins of the country are made of silver and bear the face of the king. When the king dies, the currency is immediately changed and new coins issued with the face of his successor. The people keep records by writing horizontally on strips of leather. To the west lies Tiaozhi (Mesopotamia) and to the north Yancai and Lixuan (Hyrcania).

  Tiaozhi is situated several thousand li west of Anxi [Parthia] and borders the western sea (Persian Gulf?). It is hot and damp, and the people live by cultivating the fields and planting rice. In this region live great birds which lay eggs as large as pots. The people are very numerous and are ruled by many petty chiefs. The ruler of Anxi [Parthia] gives orders to these chiefs and regards them as his vassals. The people are very skillful at performing tricks that amaze the eye. …

  When the Han envoys first visited the kingdom of Anxi [Parthia], the king of Anxi dispatched a party of 20,000 horsemen to meet them on the eastern border of his kingdom. The capital of the kingdom is several thousand li from the eastern border, and as the envoys proceeded there they passed through twenty or thirty cities inhabited by great numbers of people. When the Han envoys set out again to return to China, the king of Anxi dispatched envoys of his own to accompany them, and after the latter had visited China and reported on its great breadth and might, the king sent some of the eggs of the great birds which live in the region, and skilled tricksters of Lixuan, to the Han court as gifts. In addition, the smaller states west of Dayuan [Farghana], such as Huanqian and Dayi, as well as those east of Dayuan, such as Gushi, Yumi, and Suxie, all sent parties to accompany the Han envoys back to China and present gifts at court. The emperor was delighted at this. …

  After the skills of the foreign magicians and tricksters had been imported into China, the wrestling matches and displays of unusual feats developed and improved with each year, and from this time on entertainments of this type became increasingly popular. …

  The regions around Dayuan [Farghana] make wine out of grapes, the wealthier inhabitants keeping as much as ten thousand or more piculs stored away. It can be kept for as long as twenty or thirty years without spoiling. The people love their wine and the horses love their alfalfa. The Han envoys brought back grape and alfalfa seeds to China and the emperor for the first time tried growing these plants in areas of rich soil. Later, when the Han acquired large numbers of the “heavenly horses,” and the envoys from foreign states began to arrive with their retinues, the lands on all sides of the emperor’s summer palaces and pleasure towers were planted with grapes and alfalfa for as far as the eye could see.

  Although the states from Dayuan [Farghana] west to Anxi [Parthia] speak rather different languages, their customs are generally similar and their languages mutually intelligible. The men all have deep-set eyes and profuse beards and whiskers. They are skillful at commerce and will haggle over a fraction of a cent. Women are held in great respect, and the men make decisions on the advice of their women.

  Source: Sima Qian, Records of the Grand Historian: Han Dynasty II, translated by Burton Watson (Hong Kong and New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), 234–236, 243. Reprinted with permission.

  A Roman Account of the Parthian Empire

  We will now give a brief account of the Parthian Empire.

  XXIX. The Parthi possess in all eighteen kingdoms, such being the divisions of their provinces on the coasts of two seas, as we have stated, the Red Sea [the Persian Gulf] on the south and the Caspian Sea on the north. Of these provinces the eleven designated the Upper Kingdoms begin at the frontiers of Armenia and the shores of the Caspian, and extend to the Scythians, with whom the Parthians live on terms of equality. The remaining seven kingdoms are called the Lower Kingdoms. So far as the Parthi are concerned, there has always been a country named Parthyaea at the foot of the mountain range, … which forms the boundary of all these races. To the east of Parthyaea are the Arii, to the south Carmani and the Ariani, to the west the Pratitae, a Median race, and to the north the Hyrcani; and it is surrounded on all sides by desert. The remote Parthians are called the Nomads. Short of the desert on the west side are the Parthian cities mentioned above, Issatis and Calliope; north-east is Pyropum, south-east Maria, and in the middle Hecatompylos, Arsace, and the fine district of Parthyene, Nisiaea, containing the city name Alexandropolis after its founder.

  At this point it is necessary also to indicate the geographical position of the Medes, and to trace the formation of the country round to the Persian Sea, in order that the rest of the account that follows may be more easily understood. Medea lies crosswise on the west side, meeting Parthia at an angle, and so shutting off both groups of Parthian kingdoms. Consequently it has the Caspian and Parthian people on its east side, Sittacene, Susiane and Farsistan on the south, Adiabene on the west, and Armenia on the north. The Persians have always lived on the shore of the Red Sea [the Persian Gulf], which is the reason why it is called the Persian Gulf.

  Source: Pliny, Natural History, translated by H. Rackham (Camb
ridge: Harvard University Press, 1942), VI:XXIX.

  27. EXCERPT FROM PARTHIAN STATIONS BY ISIDORE OF CHARAX

  Parthian Stations is an account of the overland trade route between the Levant and India in the first century BCE. The author of the text, which was written in Greek, is Isidore of Charax. Our knowledge regarding Isidore of Charax is extremely scanty. He most probably lived during the reign of the Roman emperor Augustus (r. 27 BCE–14 CE), knew both Greek and Aramaic, and was identified with the town of Charax in present-day southern Iraq. The text of Parthian Stations offers a brief description of the main military and trade route crossing the Parthian Empire (247/238–224 CE) from west to east. The route began in the west at Zeugma on the banks of the Euphrates River in present-day southern Turkey, which marked the beginning of Parthian territory. It then moved eastward through 19 regions, first along the Euphrates to Seleucia-on-Tigris in present-day southern Iraq, then in a northeasterly direction toward Hagmatana/Ecbatana (modern-day Hamedan) in Media in western Iran, and then to Rhagae (Ray) south of modern-day Tehran and the Caspian Gates to Nisa, the first capital of the Parthian state in the present-day Republic of Turkmenistan. From there it continued through the northeastern Iranian province of Khorasan, turning south to Aria in present-day northwestern Afghanistan and from there to Sistan in present-day eastern Iran, and finally ending in Arachosia (present-day Qandahar) in southern Afghanistan. The regions mentioned in the text are (1) Mesopotamia and Babylonia, (2) Apolloniatis, (3) Chalonitis, (4) Media, (5) Cambadena, (6) Upper Media, (7) Media Rhagiana, (8) Charena, (9) Comisena, (10) Hyrcania, (11) Astauena, (12) Parthyena, (13) Apauarticena, (14) Margiana, (15) Aria, (16) Anaua, (17) Zarangiana, (18) Sacastana, and (19) Arachosia. The author provides his readers with the names of each province as well as the names of supply stations and the distances between them. The descriptions of the provinces and stations in the western regions of the Parthian Empire are more detailed, while the accounts of the eastern regions are brief in the extreme and lack the names of stations and the precise distances between them. One of the most interesting details of the text is the reference to several cities in the northeastern and eastern regions of the Parthian Empire. The first city so mentioned is Asaac, in which the first Parthian monarch, Arsaces I (Arshak I), “was proclaimed king; and an everlasting fire” was “guarded there.” There is no information on the exact location of this important city, and archaeologists have not been able to identify the site. Another city mentioned is Parthaunisa or Parthian Nisa, the city where the royal tombs of the Parthian monarchs were located. Finally, the author mentions the cities of Sacastana (the land of Sakas, Sistan), including Barda, Min, Palacenti, and Sigál, where the royal residence of the Sakas was located. The Sakas were part of the northern Iranian tribes, branches of which had pushed southward, settling in Sistan in present-day eastern Iran. As with the Parthian city of Asaac, the exact location of Sigál remains a mystery.

  Through Mesopotamia and Babylonia: 171 Schoeni

  Through Apolloniatis: 33 Schoeni

  Through Chalonitis: 21 Schoeni

  Through Media: 22 Schoeni

  Through Cambadena: 31 Schoeni

  Through Upper Media: 38 Schoeni

  Through Media Rhagiana: 58 Schoeni

  Through Choarena: 19 Schoeni

  Through Comisena: 58 Schoeni

  Through Hyrcania: 60 Schoeni

  Through Astauena: 60 Schoeni

  Through Parthyena: 25 Schoeni

  Through Apauarticena: 27 Schoeni

  Through Margiana: 30 Schoeni

  Through Aria: 30 Schoeni

  Through Anaua: 55 Schoeni

  Through Zarangiana: 21 Schoeni

  Through Sacastana: 63 Schoeni

  Through Arachosia: 36 Schoeni

  Total: 858 Schoeni

  Mesopotamia and Babylonia

  171 Schoeni

  1. For those who cross the Euphrates, next to Zeugma is the city of Apamia, and then the village of Daeara. It is 3 schoeni distant from Apamia and the river Euphrates. Then Charax Sidae, called by the Greeks the city of Anthemusias, 5 schoeni: beyond which is Coraea, in Batana, a fortified place: 3 schoeni. To the right of this place is Mannuorrha Auyreth, a fortified place, and a well, from which the inhabitants get drinking water, 5 schoeni. Then Commisimbela, a fortified place: by which flows the river Bilecha, 4 schoeni. Then Alagma, a fortified place, a royal station, 3 schoeni; beyond which is Ichnae, a Greek city, founded by the Macedonians: it is situated on the river Balicha: 3 schoeni. Then Nicephorium by the Euphrates, a Greek city, founded by King Alexander, 5 schoeni. Farther on, by the river, is Galabatha, a deserted village, 4 schoeni. Then the village of Chumbana, 1 schoenus; farther on Thillada Mirrhada, a royal station, 4 schoeni. Then a royal place, a temple of Artemis, founded by Darius, a small town; close by is the canal of Semiramis, and the Euphrates is dammed with rocks, in order that by being thus checked it may overflow the fields; but also in summer it wrecks the boats; to this place, 7 schoeni. Then Allan, a walled village, 4 schoeni. Then Phaliga, a village on the Euphrates (that means in Greek half-way), 6 schoeni. From Antioch to this place, 120 schoeni; and from thence to Seleucia, which is on the Tigris, 100 schoeni. Nearby Phaliga is the walled village of Nabagath, and by it flows the river Aburas, which empties into the Euphrates; there the legions cross over to the Roman territory beyond the river. Then the village of Asich, 4 schoeni; beyond which is the city of Dura Nicanoris, founded by the Macedonians, also called by the Greeks Europus, 6 schoeni. Then Merrha, a fortified place, a walled village, 5 schoeni. Then the city of Giddan, 5 schoeni. Then Belesi Biblada, 7 schoeni. Beyond is an island in the Euphrates, 6 schoeni; there was the treasure of Phraates, who cut the throats of his concubines, when Tiridates who was exiled, invaded [the land]. Then Anatho, an island in the Euphrates, of 4 stadia, on which is a city, 4 schoeni; beyond which is Thilabus, an island in the Euphrates; there is the treasure of the Parthians, 2 schoeni. Then Izan, a city on an island, 12 schoeni. Then Aipolis, [the city of Is] where there are bituminous springs, 16 schoeni. Beyond is the city of Besechana, in which is a temple of Atargatis, 12 schoeni. Then Neapolis by the Euphrates, 22 schoeni. From that place those leaving the Euphrates and passing through Narmalchan come to Seleucia on the Tigris, 9 schoeni. To this place [extend] Mesopotamia and Babylonia; and from Zeugma to Seleucia there are 171 schoeni.

  2. From that place begins Apolloniatis, which extends 33 schoeni. It has villages, in which there are stations; and a Greek city, Artemita; through the midst of which flows the river Silla. To that place from Seleucia is 15 schoeni. But now the city is called Chalasar.

  3. From that place, Chalonitis, 21 schoeni; in which there are 5 villages, in which there are stations, and a Greek city, Chala, 15 schoeni beyond Apolloniatis. Then, after 5 schoeni, a mountain which is called Zagrus [Zagros mountain range in western Iran], which forms the boundary between the district of Chalonitis and that of the Medes.

  4. From that place, [Lower] Media, which extends 22 schoeni. The beginning is at the district of Carina; in which there are 5 villages in which there are stations, but no city.

  5. From that place, Cambadene, which extends 31 schoeni, in which there are 5 villages, in which there are stations, and a city, Bagistana [Bisotun near the present-day city of Kermanshah in western Iran], situated on a mountain; there is a statue and a pillar of Semiramis.

  6. From that place, Upper Media, 38 schoeni; and at 3 schoeni from the very beginning of it is the city of Concobar [Kangavar in western Iran]; there is a temple of Artemis, 3 schoeni. Then Bazigraban, which is a custom house, 3 schoeni. Thence to Adrapana, the royal residence of those who ruled in Ecbatana [Hamedan], and which Tigranes the Armenian destroyed, 4 schoeni. Then Ecbatana, the metropolis of Media and the treasury, and a temple, sacred to Anaitis; they sacrifice there always; 12 schoeni. And beyond that place are 3 villages in which there are stations.

  7. From that place [Rhagiana] Media, [58] schoeni. In it are 10 villages, and 5 cities. After 7 schoeni
are Rhaga [Ray, south of modern-day Tehran] and Charax; of which Rhaga is the greatest of the cities in Media. And in Charax the first king Phraates settled the Mardi; it is beneath a mountain, which is called Caspius, beyond which are the Caspian Gates.

  8. Beyond that place, for those passing through the Caspian Gates there is a narrow valley, and the district of Choarena [19 schoeni]; in which is the city of Apamia, after 4 schoeni; and there are 4 villages in which there are stations.

  9. Beyond is Comisena, 58 schoeni, in which there are 8 villages in which there are stations, but there is no city.

  10. Beyond is Hyrcania [present-day Gorgan in northern Iran], 60 schoeni, in which there are 11 villages in which there are stations.

  11. Beyond is Astauena, 60 schoeni, in which there are 12 villages in which there are stations; and the city of Asaac, in which Arsaces was first proclaimed king; and an everlasting fire is guarded there.

  12. Beyond is Parthyena, 25 schoeni; within which is a valley, and the city of Parthaunisa after 6 schoeni; there are royal tombs. But the Greeks call it Nisaea [Nisa in present-day southern Turkmenistan]. Then the city of Gathar after 6 schoeni. Then the city of Siroc after 5 schoeni. Of villages it has no more than one, which is called Saphri.