The Persian Empire

by Kia, Mehrdad;

  Maniakh, the leader of the Soghdians, took this opportunity and advised Sizabul that it would be better for the Turks to cultivate the friendship of the Romans and send their raw silk for sale to them because they made more use of it than other people. Maniakh said that he himself was very willing to go along with envoys from the Turks, and in his way the Romans and Turks would become friends. Sizabul consented to this proposal and sent Maniakh and some others as envoys to the Roman Emperor carrying greetings, a valuable gift of raw silk and a letter. …

  Carrying this letter Maniakh set out on his journey. He travelled very many roads and traversed very many lands, over huge mountains reaching near the clouds, through plains and woods, over marshes and rivers. Then he crossed the Caucasus and finally came to Byzantium. When he entered the palace and came before the Emperor, he did everything according to the law of friendship. He handed over the letter and the gifts to those who were sent to receive them and he asked that the toil of his journey not to be in vain.

  When the Emperor read the letter, written in Scythian, through an interpreter, he most willingly granted an audience to the embassy. He then questioned the envoys about the leadership of the Turks and their location. They replied that they had four principalities, but power over the whole people was vested in Sizabul alone. Furthermore, they said, the Turks had conquered the Ephthalites and made them tributary. “You have, therefore,” asked the Emperor, “made all the power of Ephthalites subject to you?” “Completely,” replied the envoys. The Emperor then asked, “Do the Ephthalites live in cities or villages?” The envoys: “My Lord, that people lives in cities.” “Then,” said the Emperor, “it is clear that you have become master of these cities.” “Indeed,” said the envoys. … In this way the Turkish people became friends of the Romans and established these relations with our state.

  2. (Exc. de Leg. Rom. 7)

  When the Turks, who had formerly been called the Sacae, sent an embassy to Justin [Byzantine Emperor] concerning peace, the Emperor decided to send an envoy to the Turks. He ordered Zemarchus the Cilician, who was at the time general in command of the eastern cities, to make ready for this. …

  (Exc. de Leg. Rom. 8)

  … When Zemarchus and his companions reached the place where Sizabul was presently staying—in a valley of the so-called ‘Golden Mountain’—, having arrived there, they were summoned and immediately came into Sizabul’s presence. He was in a tent, sitting upon a golden throne with two wheels, which could be drawn when necessary by one horse. They greeted the barbarian and offered him their gifts, as was the custom, and were received by those whose task it was. …

  When they were on the march and encamped in a place called Talas, an envoy from the Persians came to meet Sizabul. He invited the Roman and the Persian ambassadors to dine with him. When they arrived, Sizabul treated the Romans with greater esteem and had them recline on the more honourable couch. Moreover, he made many complaints against the Persians, saying that he had suffered wrongs at their hands and on this account was going to war against them. While Sizabul was vehemently making his accusations, the Persian envoy ignored the custom of silence which prevailed amongst them at their feasts and began rapidly to argue back, bravely refuting Sizabul’s charges, and those present were astounded at the measure of his rage, since he abandoned custom and used many intemperate expressions. Under these circumstances they departed, and Sizabul prepared his attack on Persia.

  After this he summoned Zemarchus and his companions, reaffirmed the friendship that existed toward the Romans, and sent them away on their journey home.

  Source: Menander, The History of Menander the Guardsman: Fragment 10.1–10.4, introductory essay, text, translation, and historiographical notes by R. C. Blockley (Liverpool: Francis Cairns Publications, 1985). Reprinted with permission.

  38. BAHRAM CHOBIN: AN EXCERPT FROM THE HISTORY OF THEOPHYLACT SIMOCATTA

  Bahram Chobin or Chubin was an army commander in the Sasanian army during the reign of the Sasanian king of kings Hormozd IV (r. 579–590 CE). Bahram’s father, Bahram Goshnasp, hailed from the powerful Mehran family, which was based in Ray, south of modern-day Tehran. Because Bahram was slim and tall, he was nicknamed Chobin, meaning “Wooden Shaft” or “Javelin-like.” In his Shahnameh [The Book of Kings], the Persian poet Ferdowsi described Bahram as a tall and swarthy warrior with black frizzy hair. Ferdowsi also praised the Sasanian general as a highly skilled horseback rider. Bahram had served as an army commander during the Sasanian–Byzantine wars after 572 CE and rose through the ranks to command the army of the north, which incorporated Azerbaijan and Media. In 588 CE, when Hephthalite hordes from Central Asia, backed by the Western Turk state, invaded the northeastern regions of the Sasanian state, Bahram was appointed commander of the Sasanian army. He marched against the nomadic invaders and defeated them in Tokharestan (present-day northern Afghanistan), capturing the important city of Balkh. The victorious Persian army then crossed the Oxus River (Amu Darya) into Transoxiana, the region lying between the Oxus and Jaxartes Rivers, and inflicted a crushing defeat on the Turk army, killing the Turk khaqan.

  The impressive victories of Bahram aroused the jealousy of the Sasanian monarch, Hormozd IV, who appointed his capable and gifted general to the difficult task of conquering the kingdom of Lazica. Lazica was situated on the eastern shores of the Black Sea, corresponding with the western region of the present-day Republic of Georgia. The king of Lazica ruled as a vassal of the Byzantine emperor, who viewed the province as an important geographical barrier, one that denied the Persians access to the Black Sea. Despite his usual display of courage and bravery, Bahram suffered a defeat at the hands of a Byzantine army. This setback provided Hormozd IV with the convenient justification to dismiss his charismatic commander from his post. Humiliated by the king’s decision, Bahram rose in rebellion against Hormozd, who had become increasingly unpopular among the ruling elite. Having raised a large army, Bahram marched against the Sasanian capital of Ctesiphon, near modern-day Baghdad in present-day southern Iraq. As Bahram moved against Ctesiphon, the Persian nobility, led by two of the king’s brothers-in-law, staged a palace coup. Hormozd IV was detained, blinded, and subsequently executed. The conspirators placed Hormozd’s oldest son, Khosrow, on the throne. Khosrow II had secretly played a prominent role in the conspiracy hatched by his two uncles to overthrow his father. The new king and his supporters sent an army against Bahram. Bahram, however, defeated Khosrow’s army, with many officers defecting to his side. He then resumed his march against Ctesiphon. As Bahram’s army approached the Sasanian capital, the new king, Khosrow, and his supporters fled the city. They intended to travel to Azerbaijan, but before reaching their destination they were intercepted and defeated by Bahram. Having survived the defeat at the hands of Bahram, Khosrow fled west into Byzantine territory, seeking support from the emperor Maurice, who agreed to provide him with financial and military assistance in return for significant territorial concessions. Meanwhile, after defeating Khosrow and his army, Bahram marched to Ctesiphon and seized the Sasanian capital in 590 CE and ascended the throne of Iran as the shahanshah (king of kings). He denounced Ardashir I, the founder of the Sasanian dynasty, as an upstart and a usurper, the son of a shepherd who should have never been allowed to seize the throne of Iran. Bahram also called for the restoration of the Arsacid dynasty, which had been overthrown in 224 CE.

  Bahram’s dream of resurrecting the Arsacid state did not materialize, however, and his reign proved to be short-lived. The defeated Khosrow returned to Iran with a large army of Byzantine mercenaries. He received further assistance from army units organized by his supporters in Armenia. Bahram rushed to Azerbaijan to confront Khosrow but was defeated after a three-day battle near Lake Orumiyeh in present-day northwestern Iran. Bahram’s family, including his wives and children, were captured by Khosrow. With the Sasanian capital also falling into the hands of Khosrow, Bahram had no alternative but to flee east into Transoxiana and seek refuge in the Turk territory
north of the Oxus River. Even as he fled, the armies of the powerful Karen family, based in Shahr-i Qumis near modern-day Damghan in northern Iran, attempted to block his escape route. Despite these difficulties, Bahram reached the territory of the Turk state. The khaqan of the Turks appointed him a commander in his army. Khosrow II, who was frightened by Bahram’s popularity and reappearance, arranged for his assassination. The historian Tabari claimed that the assassination was carried out through distribution of gifts and bribes among the members of the Turk royal family, particularly the queen. After his death at the hands of an assassin, Bahram joined the ranks of Iran’s legendary heroes. He was celebrated in Persian literature as a fearless and valiant warrior, a compassionate and just ruler, and a shrewd and gifted tactician. His fame and popularity survived the fall of the Sasanian Empire in 651 CE and the arrival of Islam. In the ninth century CE, when the Persian Samanids founded a new empire in Central Asia and northeastern Iran, they claimed direct descent from Bahram Chobin. The excerpt below taken from The History of Theophylact Simocatta provides a brief description of Bahram, his family, and the causes for the conflict between the Iranian general and the Sasanian king Hormozd IV.

  (4) Now I have recorded in the earlier passages the subsequent actions of Romans and Persians. Therefore I must return to the continuity of the narrative, wheeling round the history, which is perhaps running a little off course, towards its subsequent and easily perceptible goal, from which in fact we briefly disgressed after presenting in public the attendant events connected with Baram [Bahram] at that time. (5) But first let Baram’s fatherland and lineage, the stages of his fortune, and his progressive achievements be described in a few words, so that the historical recital may be in all respects harmonious and comprehensive.

  (6) I heard a certain Babylonian, a sacred official who had gained very great experience in the composition of royal epistles, say that Baram originated from the region whose name is Rhazakene [Ragha or Ray south of modern Tehran], but that this Persian tyrant, who had initiated the overthrow of the tyrant Hormisdas [Hormozd IV], belonged to the house of Mirrames [Mehran/Mihran]. (7) For seven peoples among the Medes, allocated by ancient law, perform the sagacious and most honoured of their actions; and he stated that procedures could not be otherwise; (8) and they say that the people entitled Arsacid hold the kingship and these place the diadem on the king, another is in charge of the military disposition, another is invested with the cares of state, (9) another resolves the differences of those who have some dispute and need an arbitrator, the fifth commands the cavalry, the next levies taxes on the subjects and is overseer of the royal treasuries, the seventh is appointed custodian of arms and military uniform; Darius [Darius I of the Persian Achaemenid dynasty] the son of Hydaspes inscribed this very law in the royal precincts.

  (10) They say that Baram, who came from the house of Mirrames and the Arsacid people, was formerly enrolled among the bodyguards of the king, that shortly afterwards, as commander of a unit of soldiers, he joined in campaign with Chosroes [Khosrow I Anushiravan, who ruled 531–579] the son of Kabades [Kavad, the father of Khosrow I], when the Babylonians reduced Daras while Justin the younger possessed charge of the Roman empire. (11) And so Baram, together with the Persian king Chosroes the elder, invaded as far as Armenia itself, distinguished himself in the campaign, and soon after was even appointed general of the Persian company. (12) When fortune had thus gradually raised him up, so that he was even proclaimed darigbedum of the royal hearth (whom Romans indeed name curopalates), he continued into extreme folly: he was inflated greatly and uncontrollably as a result of his victories against the Turks, and felt the pangs of the embryo of tyranny. (13) And so like a spark in the ashes he concealed the motive for his grievance from Hormisdas the king, but whipped up the multitude by deceitfully contriving to make it appear indeed that the Persian king was angry against his army and had in addition even threatened death on the Babylonian soldiers because of their misfortunes in the engagement in Susiana. (14) He also produced forged edicts of Hormisdas which curtailed the customary distributions to the contingents from the royal treausaries. And hence the whole multitude was infuriated and proceeded to mutinous insubordination.

  Source: The History of Theophylact Simocatta, translated by Michael Whitby and Mary Whitby (Oxford: Clarendon, 1986), iii:18.4–18.14. Reprinted with permission.

  APPENDIX

  DYNASTIES OF PRE-ISLAMIC GREATER IRAN

  1. MYTHOLOGICAL/PREHISTORIC DYNASTIES

  Pishdadian

  Gayomard (Kayumars)

  Siyamak

  Hoshang/Hushang

  Tahmures

  Jamshid

  Zahhak

  Fereydun

  Iraj

  Manuchehr

  Nowzar

  Zab/Zav

  Garshasp

  Kayanian (Rulers of Eastern Iran)

  Kay Qobad

  Kay Kavus

  Kay Khosrow

  Kay Lohrasp

  Kay Goshtasp (patron of the prophet Zarathushtra/Zoroaster)

  Kay Bahman

  Kay Dara

  2. THE MEDES (700–549 BCE)

  Deioces (700–675 BCE or 700–647 BCE)

  Phraortes (Fravartaish) (674–653 BCE or 647–625 BCE)

  Cyaxares (Huvakhshtra) (625/624–585 BCE)

  Astyages (Rishti Vega) (585/584–550 BCE)

  3. THE ACHAEMENIDS (559–330 BCE)

  Cyrus II the Great (Kurush) (559/558–530 BCE)

  Cambyses II (Kambujiya) (530–522 BCE)

  Bardiya/Gaumata (522 BCE)

  Darius I (Daryavaush) (522–486 BCE)

  Xerxes I (Xshayarsha) (486–465 BCE)

  Artaxerxes I (Artaxshacha) (465–424 BCE)

  Xerxes II (424–423 BCE)

  Sogdianos (424–423 BCE)

  Darius II (423–404 BCE)

  Artaxerxes II (404–359 BCE)

  Artaxerxes III (359–338 BCE)

  Arses (Artaxerxes IV) (338–336 BCE)

  Darius III (336–330 BCE)

  4. THE SELEUCIDS (305–125 BCE)

  Seleucus I Nicator (305–281 BCE)

  Antiochus I Soter (281–261 BCE)

  Antiochus II Theos (261–246 BCE)

  Seleucus II Callinicus (246–225 BCE)

  Seleucus III Soter (225–223 BCE)

  Antiochus III the Great (223–187 BCE)

  Seleucus IV Philopator (187–175 BCE)

  Antiochus IV Ephiphanes (175–164 BCE)

  Antiochus V Eupator (164–162 BCE)

  Demetrius I Soter (162–150 BCE)

  Alexander Balas (150–145 BCE)

  Demetrius II Nicator (145–141 BCE)

  Antiochus VI Epiphanes (145–142 BCE)

  Antiochus VII Sidetes (138–129 BCE)

  Demetrius II Nicator (129–125 BCE)

  5. THE ARSACIDS (PARTHIANS) (247/238 BCE–224 CE)

  Arsaces I (Arshak I) (247/238–217 BCE)

  Arsaces II (217–191 BCE)

  Phriapatius (191–176 BCE)

  Phraates I (Frahata I) (176–171 BCE)

  Mithridates I (Mithradata I) (171–139/138 BCE)

  Phraates II (139/138–128 BCE)

  Artabanus I (Ardavan I) (128–124/123 BCE)

  Mithridates II (124/123–88/87 BCE)

  Gotarzes I (Godarz I) (91/90–81/80 BCE)

  Orodes I (Urud I) (81/80–76/75 BCE)

  Sinatruces (78/77–71/70 BCE)

  Phraates III (71/70–58/57 BCE)

  Mithridates III (58/57 BCE)

  Orodes II (58/57–38 BCE)

  Phraates IV (38–3/2 BCE)

  Phraates V (2 BCE–2 CE)

  Vonones I (8/9 CE)

  Artabanus II (10/11–38 CE)

  Vardanes (Bardan) (38–45 CE)

  Gotarzes II (43/44–51 CE)

  Vonones II (51 CE)

  Vologeses I (Valakhsh I) (51–76/80 CE)

  Vologeses II (77/78 CE)

  Artabanus III (79–81 CE)

  Pacorus (77/78–108/109
CE)

  Osroes (108/109–127/128 CE)

  Vologeses III (111/112–147/148 CE)

  Vologeses IV (147/148–191/192 CE)

  Vologeses V (191/192–207/208 CE)

  Vologeses VI (207/208–221/222 CE)

  Artabanus IV (213–224 CE)

  6. THE KINGS OF CHARACENE

  Hyspaosines (127–122/121 BCE)

  Apodacus (110/109–104/103 BCE)

  Tiraius I (95/94–90/89 BCE)

  Tiraius II (79/78–49/48 BCE)

  Artabazus (49/48–48/47 BCE)

  Attambelus I (47/46–25/24 BCE)

  Theonesius I (19/18 BCE)

  Attambelus II (17/16 BCE–8/9 CE)

  Abinergaus (10/11 CE, 22/23 CE)

  Orobazes I (19 CE)

  Attambelus III (37/38–44/45 CE)

  Theonesius II (46/47 CE)

  Theonesius III (52/53 CE)

  Attambelus IV (54/55–64/65 CE)

  Attambelus V (64/65–73/74 CE)

  Orobazes I (73–80 CE)

  Pacorus (II) (80–101/102 CE)

  Attambelus VI (101/102–105/106 CE)

  Theonesius IV (110/111–112/113 CE)

  Attambelus VII (113/114–117 CE)

  Meredates (131–150/151 CE)

  Orabazes II (150/151–165 CE)

  Abinergaus II (165–180 CE)

  Attambelus VIII (180–195 CE)

  Maga (195–210 CE)

  Abinergaus III (210–222 CE)