by Mario Livio
“could not have appeared at a better time”: Opere di Galileo Galilei, vol. 12, p. 150. Cesi added: “The writer counts all Linceans as Copernicans, though that is not so; all we claim in common is freedom to philosophize in physical matters.”
“it seems to me that Your Paternity”: The translation appears in Finocchiaro 1989, 67.
“Nor can one reply that this”: Bellarmino’s entire letter is reproduced in Fantoli 1996, 183–185, where it is also discussed, and also in Finocchiaro 1989, 67–69.
Bellarmino’s answer to Foscarini: In addition to works mentioned already, there are interesting discussions about Bellarmino’s opinions in Feldhay 1995, Coyne and Baldini 1985, Geymonat 1965, and Peia 1998.
“It is replied that then everything”: Galileo’s unpublished notes from 1615, on Bellarmino’s “Letter to Foscarini,” appear as app. 9, section A, in Blackwell 1991.
CHAPTER 7: THIS PROPOSITION IS FOOLISH AND ABSURD
“taking the former as the cause”: Galileo’s theory of the tides is discussed, for instance, in Wallace 1992 and in Shea 1998.
“this proposition is foolish and absurd”: In the consultor’s report on Copernicanism from February 24, 1616. The report is online at “Galileo Trial: 1616 Documents,” DouglasAllchin.net, accessed July 16, 2019, douglasallchin.net/galileo/library/1616docs.htm The phrase is cited in a number of Galileo biographies, including Reston 1994, 164.
Events then followed in rapid succession: Described in detail in Fantoli 1996 and Fantoli 2012.
“At the palace of the usual residence”: One translation of the description of this Injunction event (from February 26, 1616) can be found online at “Galileo Trial: 1616 Documents,” DouglasAllchin.net, accessed July 16, 2019, douglasallchin.net/galileo/library/1616docs.htm. The original is in Opere di Galileo Galilei, vol. 19, pp. 321–22. The translation is in Finocchiaro 1989, 147–48, and Finocchiaro 2008, 175–76.
the Congregation published its devastating decree: The translation of the full text, from Opere di Galileo Galilei, vol. 19, pp. 322–23, appears in Finocchiaro 1989, 149, and in Fantoli 2012, 106.
“especially in this century, for the present Pope”: Opere di Galileo Galilei, vol. 12, 242. Translated in de Santillana 1955, 116.
“We, Roberto Cardinal Bellarmino”: This document was included with those of Galileo’s trial in 1633, since that was when Galileo presented it. It appears in Pagano 1984, and the English translation is in Finocchiaro 1989, 153.
Why did the Jesuit mathematicians?: George Coyne 2010 also discusses this question.
CHAPTER 8: A BATTLE OF PSEUDONYMS
“images and wandering simulacra”: Galileo’s argument (as it appears in Guiducci’s “Discourse”) is discussed in Drake and O’Malley 1960, 36–37. An excellent discussion on the comet controversy is in chap. 4 of Shea 1972.
never advanced an actual theory: David Eicher gives the modern view on comets. Eicher 2013.
“I shall not pretend to ignore”: Discussed in Galluzzi 2014, 251, and also in Drake and O’Malley 1960, 57.
“What is this sudden fear”: Opere di Galileo Galilei, vol. 6, p. 145. English translations are, for instance, in Langford 1971, 108, and in Fantoli 2012, 128.
“Philosophy is to be studied, not for the sake”: Russell 1912.
“thanks to the subtle and solid”: Opere di Galileo Galilei, vol. 6, p. 200. Translation in Fantoli 2012, 129.
an ode, “Adulatio Perniciosa”: Included, with its English translation, in Gattei 2019.
“assuring you that you will find in me”: Letter sent on June 24, 1623. In Opere di Galileo Galilei, vol. 13, p. 119.
“a stupendous masterpiece of polemic”: Geymonat 1965, 101.
CHAPTER 9: THE ASSAYER
“In Sarsi I seem to discern the firm”: In many ways, this text marked the beginning of modern physics. Princeton Institute for Advanced Study theoretical physicist Nima Arkani-Hamed said recently in an interview: “The ascension to the tenth level of intellectual heaven would be if we find the question to which the universe is the answer.” Galileo started that quest; see Wolchover 2019. Extensive excerpts from The Assayer are in Drake 1957 and also Drake and O’Malley 1960.
“If Sarsi wishes me to believe”: Opere di Galileo Galilei, vol. 6, p. 340. Translation in Drake and O’Malley 1960.
“To excite in us tastes, odors, and sounds”: For a discussion of this topic from an epistemological perspective, see Potter 1993.
to his subsequent troubles with the Church: The speculation that atomism was the main reason for Galileo having been declared a heretic was developed in Redondi 1987. Most scholars don’t accept this theory.
“Let us be granted that my master”: Opere di Galileo Galilei, vol. 6, pp. 116. Translation in Drake and O’Malley 1960, 71. The fact that Mars crosses the Sun’s path was known to be a problem for the Ptolemaic model.
The latter reportedly rushed to the Sun bookshop: The entire event is described in Opere di Galileo Galilei, vol. 13, pp. 145, 147–48. See also Redondi 1987, 180.
Italian scholar Pietro Redondi discovered: The letter that he found is reproduced at the end of Galileo Heretic (Redondi 1987). Redondi’s book describes the entire Galileo-Grassi conflict as part of a much larger social drama.
CHAPTER 10: THE DIALOGO
“we cannot limit the divine power”: According to the papal personal theologian, Cardinal Agostino Oreggi, Cardinal Barberini told this to Galileo. Oreggi 1629; cited in Fantoli 2012, 137.
first by answering Francesco Ingoli’s: The English translation of Galileo’s reply to Ingoli (from 1624) is in Finocchiaro 1989, 154–97, and discussed in Fantoli 1996, 323–28.
“Here we have Galileo, who is a famous”: Opere di Galileo Galilei, vol. 14, p. 103. Translated in Fantoli 1996, 336.
this was not the end of the trials: The ups and down of the process are described in detail in Fantoli 1996, Heilbron 2010, and Wootton 2010.
“I agree to give the label”: From Galileo’s letter on May 3, 1631, to the Tuscan secretary of state. Translated in Finocchiaro 1989, 210–11.
Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief: There are several translations and commentaries on the Dialogo, such as Gould 2001, Finocchiaro 2014, and Finocchiaro 1997.
“There were those who impudently asserted”: Opere di Galileo Galilei, vol. 7, p. 29.
“It is not from failing to take count”: Opere di Galileo Galilei, vol. 7, p. 30; translated by Stillman Drake in Gould 2001, 6.
Fashioned after Plato’s dialogues: Finocchiaro 1997 provides a selection from the Dialogo, with helpful commentary.
To lambaste Galileo for both: Koestler even wrote: “impostures like Galileo’s are rare in the annals of science.” Koestler 1989, p. 486.
More recent, thorough analyses: In particular, A. Mark Smith in 1985 and Paul Mueller in 2000 have shown that while the way Galileo presented his arguments was far from perfect (on both logical and completion grounds), once properly analyzed, the proof for the Earth’s motion from sunspots was worth much more than the proof from the tides.
“I know that if I asked whether God”: Opere di Galileo Galilei, vol. 7, p. 488, translated by Stillman Drake in Gould 2001, 538.
“I do not give these arguments the status”: Opere di Galileo Galilei, vol. 7, p. 383. See also Gingerich 1986 for a concise summary of Galileo’s contributions to astronomy.
CHAPTER 11: THE GATHERING STORM
In early September Filippo Magalotti: Fantoli 1996, chap. 6, describes in detail the sequence of events.
“While we were discussing those delicate”: Opere di Galileo Galilei, vol. 14, pp. 383–84. Months later, when Niccolini brought up the subject again, the Pope again exploded. See also Biagioli 1993, 336–37.
“deceitfully silent about the command”: Cited, for example, in Koestler 1990.
He also wrote to a friend in Paris, Elia Diodati: Diodati was born in Geneva but settled in France. He met Galileo during one of his trips to Italy, around 1620. Galileo wrote in 1636 that Diodati was his most
cherished and true friend. After Galileo’s death, Diodati kept in contact with Vincenzo Viviani.
“May God forgive Signor Galilei”: From a letter of the Tuscan ambassador Francesco Niccolini to the Tuscan secretary of state, Andrea Cioli. The letter was written on March 13, 1633. The translation appears in Finocchiaro 1989, 247.
CHAPTER 12: THE TRIAL
After a few preliminary questions: Among the many descriptions of the trial and its aftermath, I find those in Blackwell 2006, Finocchiaro 2005, Fantoli 2012, and de Santillana 1955 particularly illuminating.
These discrepancies have spawned: One of the reasons for the suspicions has been the fact that the document describing Seghizzi’s intervention did not have the signatures of Galileo, Seghizzi, or any witnesses. Another was the fact that this document had conveniently been discovered just prior to the trial. The calligraphic analysis was performed by Isabella Truci of the National Central Library of Florence. Since the document presented only a summary, no signatures other than that of the notary were required.
“I do not recall that such injunction”: Opere di Galileo Galilei, vol. 19, p. 340. Translated in Finocchiaro 1989, 260, as part of the session on April 12, 1633.
Melchior Inchofer, who was a strong opponent: He also published a treatise entitled A Summary Treatise Concerning the Motion or Rest of the Earth and the Sun, in which it is briefly shown what is, and what is not, to be held as certain according to the teachings of the Sacred Scriptures and the Holy Fathers. Inchofer 1633.
“Last night, Galileo was afflicted”: The Italian version of the letter is in Beretta 2001. The translation here is from Blackwell 2006, 14.
One Galileo scholar therefore suggested: In particular, this thesis has been advanced in Blackwell 2006. Others, such as Heilbron 2010, were not convinced. In a private conversation, Michele Camerota told me that he believed there was an agreement between Maculano and Galileo. In a private conversation, Paolo Galluzzi suggested that this agreement is what may have led to the fact that Galileo served his prison sentence only under house arrest.
“to deal extrajudicially with Galileo”: Blackwell 2006, 224, argued that without the plea bargain, it is difficult to understand why Galileo confessed in the second session of the trial, given that his position after the first session was quite solid. Fantoli 1996, 426, agreed.
a clear demonstration of what intimidation: As philosopher Albert Camus noted, even Galileo, “who held a scientific truth of great importance, abjured it… as soon as it endangered his life.” Camus 1955, 3.
“not introduced through the cunning”: In addition to this confession, and after asking his judges to consider his poor health and advanced age, Galileo also asked them to consider his honor and reputation against the slanders of those who hated him. Finocchiaro 1989, 280–81.
CHAPTER 13: I ABJURE, CURSE, AND DETEST
even some downright false: Mostly from Lorini’s and Caccini’s claims. The accusation in Blackwell 2006 that the Letter to Benedetto Castelli was also falsified is not true, as shown by the text in the original Letter to Benedetto Castelli, which was discovered in 2018 (as described in chap. 6).
The summary itself was most probably written: This was at least the opinion of Giorgio de Santillana. Santillana 1955, 284.
In the first English biography of Galileo: All copies but one were destroyed by the Fire of London in 1666. Even that one copy was lost in the mid-nineteenth century, only to resurface temporarily in an auction between 2004 and 2007. Wilding 2008 gives a superb description of the history of the manuscript.
about being caricatured as Simplicio: Finocchiaro argues convincingly that this was not the main reason for the trial. Finocchiaro 2005, 79.
Add to this, that he [the Pope]: Cited in Wilding 2008, 259.
“decreed that the said Galileo”: Cited in Langford 1966, 150, and also in Blackwell 2006, 22.
“vehemently suspected of heresy”: After formal heresy, this was the next crime in terms of severity.
“We are willing to absolve you”: Translated in Finocchiaro 1989, 291.
We do not know if Cardinal Francesco Barberini’s: A number of Galileo scholars believe that Francesco Barberini’s absence (he was absent also on June 16) signaled disapproval (for example, de Santillana 1955, 310–11). The other absentees were Cardinal Caspar Borgia and Cardinal Laudivio Zacchia.
“I abjure, curse, and detest”: Opere di Galileo Galilei, vol. 19, pp. 402–6; translated in Finocchiaro 1989, 292.
A thorough investigation I conducted: This “detective story” will be described elsewhere.
in The Italian Library: Baretti 1757.
CHAPTER 14: ONE OLD MAN, TWO NEW SCIENCES
“As much as the news of Your Honor’s”: Letter of Maria Celeste on July 2, 1633. Slightly different translations can be found on the website The Galileo Project, as well as in Heilbron 2010, 327, and in Sobel 1999, 279. All the letters are in Sobel 2001.
“What an unhappy place we live in”: Letter of Pieroni to Galileo on August 18, 1636, cited in Heilbron 2010, 331.
marked the final chapter of Galileo’s scientific: For those who can read Italian, one of the best books on Galileo and the scientific culture of his time is Camerota 2004.
“Along a horizontal plane the motion”: Galilei 1914, 215.
“The Lord God is subtle”: Einstein said it to Princeton mathematician Oswald Veblen in May 1921. It is now inscribed in the faculty lounge, 202 Jones Hall.
“My purpose is to set forth”: In Galilei 1914, “Third Day.”
CHAPTER 15: THE FINAL YEARS
diagnosed his condition as: Discussed in Zanatta et al. 2015 and in Thiene and Basso 2011.
“Alas, my good sir, your dear friend”: Letter to Diodati on January 2, 1638, cited in Fermi and Bernardini 1961, 109, and (with a slightly different translation) in Reston, 1994, 277.
“And lest some should persuade ye”: Milton 1644; text appears, for example, in Cochrane 1887, 74.
“I inquired in Leiden and Amsterdam”: Letter of Descartes to Mersenne in November 1633, cited in Gingras 2017.
Modern medical researchers have speculated: Zanatta et al. 2015, Thiene and Basso 2011.
“At the age of seventy-seven years”: Opere di Galileo Galilei, vol. 19, p. 623. Reproduced in Fantoli 2012, 218.
Even though his remains lay: Galluzzi 1998 gives an excellent description of the fate of Galileo’s remains. As Galileo’s remains were moved from his original grave to the tomb in the Basilica of Santa Croce, the thumb, index, a middle finger, and a tooth were detached from Galileo’s body. Those are now on display in glass bell jars at the Galileo Museum in Florence (Figure 10 in the color insert). The fifth lumbar vertebra was also removed and it is now at the University of Padua. John Fahie 1929 compiled a list of various memorials to Galileo.
CHAPTER 16: THE SAGA OF PIO PASCHINI
than the tale of Monsignor Pio Paschini: The story is told in Fantoli 2012, 228–32, in Blackwell 1998, 361–65, and in detail in Finocchiaro 2005, 275–77, 280–284, 318–37, and Simoncelli 1992.
Life and Works of Galileo Galilei: Paschini 1964.
and producing a manuscript on January 23, 1945: In Simoncelli 1992, 59.
and was rejected as “unsuitable”: Paschini never received any written report on the objections. In a letter he sent on May 12, 1946, to Giovanbattista Montini, deputy secretary of state at the Vatican, he complained, “I was extremely surprised and disgusted that I should have been accused of having produced nothing but an apology of Galileo. In fact, this accusation profoundly attacks my scientific integrity as a scholar and teacher.”
especially that with his friend Giuseppe Vale: On May 15, 1946, Paschini wrote to Vale about the decision of the Holy Office: “It said that my work was an apology for Galileo; it made some comments on a few of my sentences; it objected that Galileo had not given the proofs of his system (the usual sophism); and it concluded that publication was not appropriate.” Finocchiaro 2005, 323.
The g
eneral impression one got from Lamalle’s: Lamalle 1964.
“One can, therefore, legitimately regret”: The Second Vatican Council approved this text on December 7, 1965, in the Gaudium et Spes (Latin for Joy and Hope), one of the four constitutions resulting from the Second Vatican Council.
when Bertolla scrutinized the individual changes: Bertolla 1980, 172–208.
“to be directed against the Copernican”: Cited in Finocchiaro 2005, 334.
Citing an article from 1906: Delannoy 1906, 358.
“Deep Harmony Which Unites the Truths”: John Paul II 1979.
“World Takes Turn in Favor of Galileo”: Koven 1980.
“Paradoxically, Galileo, a sincere believer”: John Paul II 1992.
The New York Times announced: Cowell 1992.
The Los Angeles Times had a similar: Montalbano 1992.
“The fact that the Pope continues”: Beltrán Marí 1994, 73.
CHAPTER 17: GALILEO’S AND EINSTEIN’S THOUGHTS ON SCIENCE AND RELIGION
Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina: The text and commentary can be found in Drake 1957, 145–216.
a 2017 Gallup survey: The support for creationism was the lowest in thirty-five years. Swift 2017. “Intelligent Designers” want to teach Darwinian evolution and creationist views simply as rival hypotheses. Gopnik 2013 presents an engaging discussion in the context of Galileo’s biography.
the controversy over which remains: See Larson 2006, 1985.
“to the field of religious doctrine”: John Paul II, 1992.
the age of the universe is now known: Primarily from observations of the cosmic microwave background. Planck Collaboration 2016.
“The concept of biological evolution”: National Academy of Sciences president Bruce Alberts in the preface to Science and Creationism: A View from the National Academy of Sciences, 2nd ed., 1999.