Taking Charge of Your Fertility

by Toni Weschler

  User failure rate: A measure of the effectiveness of a contraceptive method under real-life conditions.

  Uterus (womb): The pear-shaped muscular organ in which the fertilized ovum implants and grows for the duration of pregnancy. Muscular contractions of the uterus push the infant out through the birth canal at the time of birth. If implantation does not occur, the uterine lining (endometrium) is shed at menstruation.

  Vagina: The muscular canal extending from the cervix to the opening at the vulva. Sperm are deposited in the vagina during intercourse. It is also through this canal that the baby is delivered (birth canal).

  Vaginal discharge: See Discharge.

  Vaginal infection: An abnormal bacterial or viral growth in the vagina.

  Vaginismus: A painful spasm of the vagina that prevents comfortable penetration of the penis.

  Vaginitis: An inflammation of the vagina caused by an infection or other irritation.

  Vanishing Twin Syndrome: A surprisingly common phenomenon in which one of two fraternal twin embryos is spontaneously miscarried or reabsorbed early in a pregnancy, resulting in a single-baby birth.

  Varicocele: A varicose-type vein in a man’s scrotum that can impede his fertility by increasing the testicular temperature.

  Vas deferens: One of a pair of tubes that carry the seminal fluid from the testes to the urethra.

  Vasectomy: A male sterilization procedure in which each vas deferens is cut to prevent the passage of sperm.

  VD: Venereal disease. See Sexually transmitted diseases.

  Venereal disease (VD): See Sexually transmitted diseases.

  Vestibulitis: A medical condition that causes pain and discomfort in the vaginal area.

  Vitex (Vitex agnus or Chasteberry): A complex herb that is among the most widely used as a natural aid in treating hormone imbalances in women. It is thought to act on the pituitary, or master gland.

  Vulva: The external female genitalia comprising the clitoris and two sets of labia.

  Vulvodynia: Pain in the vulva, characterized by itching, burning, stinging, or stabbing at the opening of the vagina.

  Waking temperature: The temperature of the body at rest, taken immediately upon awakening, before any activity. Often referred to as basal body temperature (BBT).

  Withdrawal bleeding: Vaginal bleeding resulting from an insufficient level of estrogen to maintain the uterine lining. It usually occurs during anovulatory cycles.

  Womb: See Uterus.

  ZIFT: Zygote Intra-Fallopian Transfer. A procedure in which a woman’s egg is fertilized by her partner’s sperm in a petri dish. The resulting zygote is then placed back in her fallopian tube.

  Zygote: The fertilized ovum. A single fertilized cell resulting from fusion of the sperm and the egg. After further cell division the zygote is known as a blastocyst, then as an embryo.

  Zygote Intra-Fallopian Transfer: See ZIFT.

  Bibliography

  ASSISTED REPRODUCTIVE TECHNOLOGIES

  Articles

  Baczkowski, Thomas, et al. “Methods of Embryo Scoring in In Vitro Fertilization,” Reproductive Biology 4 (March 2004): 5–22.

  Baker, V. L., et al. “Multivariate Analysis of Factors Affecting Probability of Pregnancy and Live Birth with In Vitro Fertilization: An Analysis of the Society for Assisted Reproductive Technology Clinic Outcomes Reporting System,” Fertility and Sterility 94 (2010), 1410–1411.

  Dondorp, W., et al. “Oocyte Cryopreservation for Age-Related Fertility Loss,” Human Reproduction 27 (2012), 1231–1237.

  Gleicher, N., Vitaly A. Kushnir, and David H. Barad. “Preimplantation Genetic Screening (PGS) Still in Search of a Clinical Application: A Systematic Review,” Reproductive Biology and Endocrinology 12 (2014) [online].

  Kuohung, Wendy, M.D., et al. “Overview of Treatment of Female Infertility,” Official Report from UptoDate.com (2012).

  Nogueira, Daniela, Jean Clair Sadeu, and Jacques Mantagut. “In Vitro Oocyte Maturation: Current Status,” Seminars in Reproductive Medicine 30 (2012), 199–213.

  Ogilvie, Caroline Mackie, et al. “Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis—An Overview,” Journal of Histochemistry and Cytochemistry 53 (March 2005): 255–260.

  Paulson, Richard. “In Vitro Fertilization,” Official Report from UptoDate.com (2014).

  . “Pregnancy Outcome after Assisted Reproductive Technology,” Official Report from UptoDate.com (2014).

  The Practice Committees of the American Society for Reproductive Medicine and The Society for Reproductive Technology. “Mature Oocyte Cryopreservation: A Guideline,” Fertility and Sterility 99 (2013), 37–43.

  Riggan, Kirsten, M. A. “Ovarian Hyperstimulation Syndrome: An Update on Contemporary Reproductive Technology and Ethics,” Dignitas 16 (2010) (web).

  Schubert, Charlotte. “Egg Freezing Enters Clinical Mainstream,” Nature, October 23, 2012.

  Vloeberghs, Veerle, Greta Verheyen, and Herman Tournaye. “Intracytoplasmic Injection and In Vitro Maturation: Fact or Fiction?” Clinics 68 (2013), 151–156.

  Books

  Center for Disease Control and Prevention and the American Society for Reproductive Medicine. 2010 Assisted Reproductive Technology National Summary Report. Atlanta: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2012.

  Sher, Geoffrey, M.D., et al. In Vitro Fertilization: The A.R.T. of Making Babies, 4th edition. New York: Skyhorse Publishing, 2013.

  BREASTFEEDING

  Articles

  Family Health International. Consensus Statement. “Breastfeeding as a Family Planning Method,” The Lancet (November 19, 1988): 1204–1205.

  Gray, Ronald H., Oona M. Campbell, Ruben Apelo, Susan S. Eslami, Howard Zacur, Rebecca M. Ramos, Judith C. Gehret, and Miriam H. Labbok. “Risk of Ovulation During Lactation,” The Lancet 335 (January 6, 1990): 25–29.

  Howie, P. W., A. S. McNeilly, M. J. Houston, A. Cook, and H. Boyle. “Fertility After Childbirth: Post-Partum Ovulation and Menstruation in Bottle and Breast-Feeding Mothers,” Clinical Endocrinology 17 (October 1982): 323–332.

  Kennedy, Kathy I., et al. “Breastfeeding and the Symptothermal Method,” Studies in Family Planning 26 (1995): 107–115.

  Kennedy, Kathy J., and Cynthia M. Visness. “Contraceptive Efficacy of Lactational Amenorrhea,” The Lancet 339 (January 25, 1992): 227–229.

  Labbok, Miriam, Kristin Cooney, and Shirley Coly. Guidelines: Breastfeeding, Family Planning, and the Lactational Amenorrhea Method-LAM. Washington, DC: Institute for Reproductive Health, 1994.

  Lewis, Patricia R., Ph.D., et al. “The Resumption of Ovulation and Menstruation in a Well-Nourished Population of Women Breastfeeding for an Extended Period of Time,” Fertility and Sterility 55 (March 1991): 520–535.

  Paranteau-Carreau, Suzanne, M.D., IFFLP, and Kristin A. Cooney, M.A., IRH. Breastfeeding, Lactational Amenorrhea Method, and Natural Family Planning Interface: Teaching Guide, 1–35. Washington, DC: Institute for Reproductive Health, 1994.

  Perez, Alfredo, Miriam H. Labbok, and John T. Queenan. “Clinical Study of the Lactational Amenorrhea Method for Family Planning,” The Lancet 339 (April 18, 1992): 968–970.

  Tay, Clement C. K. “Mechanisms Controlling Lactational Infertility,” Journal of Human Lactation 7 (March 1991): 15–18.

  Valdes, Veronica, et al. “The Efficacy of the Lactational Amenorrhea Method (LAM) among Working Women,” Contraception 62 (November 2000): 217–219.

  Van der Wijden, Carla, et al. “Lactational Amenorrhea for Family Planning,” Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (2003): CD001329.

  Books

  Riordan, Jan, Ed.D., R.N., and Kathleen G. Auerbach, Ph.D. Breastfeeding and Human Lactation, 3rd edition. Boston and London: Jones and Bartlett Publishers, 2005.

  CONTRACEPTIVE EFFICACY

  Articles

  Attar, Erkut. “Natural Contraception using the Billings Ovulation Method,” European Journal of Contraception and Reproductive Health Care (June 2002): 96–99.

  Barbato, Michele, M.D., and Giancarlo Bertolotti,
M.D. “Natural Methods for Fertility Control: A Prospective Study—First Part,” International Fertility Supplement (1988): 48–51.

  The European Natural Family Planning Study Groups. “European Multicenter Study of Natural Family Planning (1989–1995): Efficacy and Dropout,” Advances in Contraception 15 (1999): 69–83.

  Flynn, Anna M., and John Bonnar. “Natural Family Planning.” In Contraception: Science and Practice, edited by Marcus Filshie and John Guillebaud, 203–205. London: Butterworth’s Press, 1989.

  Frank-Hermann, Petra, et al. “Determination of the Fertile Window: Reproductive Competence of Women—European Cycles Databases,” Gynecological Endocrinology 20 (June 2005): 305–312.

  . “Effectiveness and Acceptability of the Symptothermal Method of Natural Family Planning in Germany,” American Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology 165 (December 1991): 2052–2054.

  . “The Effectiveness of a Fertility Awareness Based Method to Avoid Pregnancy in Relation to a Couple’s Sexual Behavior During the Fertile Time: A Prospective Longitudinal Study,” Human Reproduction, 22 (2007): 1310–1319.

  . “Natural Family Planning With and Without Barrier Method Use in the Fertile Phase: Efficacy in Relation to Sexual Behavior: A German Prospective Long-Term Study,” Advances in Contraception 13 (June–September 1997): 179–189.

  Freundl, G., and I. Batar. “State-of-the-Art of Non-Hormonal Methods of Contraception,” European Journal of Contraceptive and Reproductive Health Care 15 (2010): 113–123.

  Ghosh, A. K., S. Saha, and G. Chattergee. “Symptothermia Vis-à-Vis Fertility Control,” Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology of India 32 (1982): 443–447.

  Grimes, David A., et al. “Fertility Awareness-based Methods for Contraception: Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled Trials,” Contraception 72 (August 2005): 85–90.

  . “Fertility Awareness-based Methods for Contraception,” Cochrane Database of Systematic Review (October 2004): CD004860.

  Guida, M. “An Overview of the Effectiveness of Natural Family Planning,” Gynecological Endocrinology (June 1997): 203–219.

  Hume, K. “Fertility Awareness in the 1990s—The Billings Ovulation Method of Natural Family Planning, Its Scientific Basis, Practical Application and Effectiveness,” Advances in Contraception 7 (June–September 1991): 301–311.

  Jennings, Victoria, Ph.D. “Fertility Awareness-Based Methods of Pregnancy Prevention,” Official Report from UptoDate.com (2014).

  Lamprecht, V., and J. Trussel. “Natural Family Planning Effectiveness: Evaluating Published Reports,” Advances in Contraception 13 (1997): 155–165.

  Lethbridge, Dona J., R.N., Ph.D. “Coitus Interruptus: Considerations as a Method of Birth Control,” Journal of Obstetrics, Gynecologic and Neonatal Nursing 20 (1991): 80–85.

  Petotti, Diana B. “Statistical Aspects of the Evaluation of the Safety and Effectiveness of Fertility Control Methods.” In Fertility Control, edited by Stephen L. Corson, Richard J. Dennan, and Louise B. Tyrer, pp. 13–25. Boston: Little, Brown, 1985.

  Rice, Frank J., Ph.D., Claude A. Lanctôt, M.D., and Consuelo Farcia-DeVesa, Ph.D. “Effectiveness of the Sympto-Thermal Method of Natural Family Planning: An International Study,” International Journal of Fertility 26 (1981): 222–230.

  Royston, J. P. “Basal Body Temperature, Ovulation and the Risk of Conception, with Special Reference to the Lifetimes of Sperm and Egg,” Biometrics 38 (June 1982): 397–406.

  Ryder, R. E. J. “‘Natural Family Planning’: Effective Birth Control Supported by the Catholic Church,” British Medical Journal 307 (September 18, 1993): 723–726.

  Sinai, I., and M. Averalo. “It’s All in the Timing: Coital Frequency and Fertility-Awareness Based Methods of Family Planning,” Journal of Biosocial Science 38 (2006) 763–777.

  Trussell, James, and Laurence Grummer-Strawn. “Contraceptive Failure of the Ovulation Method of Periodic Abstinence,” Family Planning Perspectives 22 (March/April 1990): 65–75.

  Trussell, James, and Kathryn Kost. “Contraceptive Failure in the United States: A Critical Review of the Literature,” Studies in Family Planning 18 (September–October 1987): 237–283.

  Trussell, James, Ph.D., et al. “Contraceptive Failure in the United States: An Update,” Studies in Family Planning 21 (January–February 1990): 51–54.

  . “A Guide to Interpreting Contraceptive Efficacy Studies,” Obstetrics & Gynecology 76 (September 1990): 558–567.

  Wade, Maclyn E., M.D., et al. “A Randomized Prospective Study of the Use-Effectiveness of Two Methods of Natural Family Planning,” American Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology 141 (October 1981): 368–376.

  Woolley, Robert J., M.D. “Contraception—A Look Forward, Part I: New Spermicides and Natural Family Planning,” Journal of the American Board of Family Practice (January 1991): 33–44.

  World Health Organization, Task Force. “A Prospective Multicentre Trial of the Ovulation Method of Natural Family Planning. II. The Effectiveness Phase,” Fertility and Sterility 36 (November 1981): 591–598.

  . “A Prospective Multicentre Trial of the Ovulation Method of Natural Family Planning. III. Characteristics of the Menstrual Cycle and of the Fertile Phase,” Fertility and Sterility 40 (December 1983): 773–778.

  Books

  Hatcher, Robert A., M.D., M.P.H., et al. Contraceptive Technology, 19th rev. ed. New York: Irvington Publishers, Inc., 2007.

  . Contraceptive Technology, 20th rev. ed. New York: Irvington Publishers, Inc., 2011.

  FERTILITY AND THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE

  Articles

  Badwe, R. A., et al. “Timing of Surgery During Menstrual Cycle and Survival of Premenopausal Women with Operable Breast Cancer,” The Lancet 337 (May 25, 1991): 1261–1264.

  Banks, A. Lawrence, M.D. “Does Adoption Affect Infertility?” International Journal of Fertility (1962): 23–28.

  Barnes, Ann B., M.D. “Menstrual History and Fecundity of Women Exposed and Unexposed in Utero to Diethylstilbestrol,” Journal of Reproductive Medicine 29 (September 1984): 651–655.

  . “Menstrual History of Young Women Exposed in Utero to Diethylstilbestrol,” Fertility and Sterility 32 (August 1979): 148–153.

  Barron, Mary Lee, and Richard J. Fehring. “Basal Body Temperature Assessment: Is It Useful to Couples Seeking Pregnancy?” American Journal of Maternal Child Nursing 30 (September–October 2005): 290–296.

  Benaglia, L., et al. “Rate of Severe Ovarian Damage Following Surgery for Endometrioses,” Human Reproduction 25 (2010): 678–682.

  Bigelow, Jamie L., et al. “Mucus Observations in the Fertile Window: A Better Predictor of Conception than Timing of Intercourse,” Human Reproduction 19 (April 2004): 889–892.

  Brown, James B., D. Sc., Joanne Holmes, B.A., and Gillian Barker. “Use of the Home Ovarian Monitor in Pregnancy Avoidance,” American Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology 165 (December 1991): 2008–2011.

  Burger, Henry G., M.D. “Neuroendocrine Control of Human Ovulation,” International Journal of Fertility 26 (1981): 153–160.

  Burger, H. G., et al. “Vitex Agnus-Castus Extracts for Female Reproductive Disorders: A Systematic Review of Clinical Trials,” Planta Medicine 79 (2013): 562–575.

  Campbell, Doris M. “Aetiology of Twinning.” In Twinning and Twins, edited by I. MacGillivray, D. M. Campbell, and B. Thompson, pp. 27–36. London: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., 1988.

  Canfield, R. E., et al. “Development of an Assay for a Biomarker of Pregnancy and Early Fetal Loss,” Environmental Health Perspectives 74 (October 1987): 57–66.

  Ceballo, R., et al. “Perceptions of Women’s Infertility: What Do Physicians See?” Fertility and Sterility 93 (2010): 1066–1073.

  Chard, T. “Pregnancy Tests: A Review,” Human Reproduction 7 (May 1992): 701–710.

  Chung, Karine, M.D., M.S.C.E., and Paulson, Richard, M.D. “Fertility Preserving Options for Women of Advancing Age,” Official Report from UptoDate.com (2014).

  Committee on Practice Bulletins—Gynecology. “Practice no. 136: Manageme
nt of Abnormal Uterine Bleeding Associated with Ovulatory Dysfunction,” Obstetrics and Gynecology 122 (2013): 176–185.

  Croxatto, H. B., et al. “Studies in the Duration of Egg Transport by the Human Oviduct. II. Ovum Location at Various Intervals Following Luteinizing Hormone Peak,” American Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology 132 (November 15, 1978): 629–634.

  Cunha, G. R., Ph.D., et al. “Teratogenic Effects of Clomiphene, Tamoxifen, and Diethylstilbestrol on the Developing Human Female Genetic Tract,” Human Pathology 18 (November 1987): 1132–1143.

  Custers, I. M., et al. “Long-term Outcome in Couples with Unexplained Subfertility and an Immediate Prognosis Initially Randomized Between Expected Management and Immediate Treatment,” Human Reproduction 27 (2012): 444–450.

  Darland, Nancy Wilson, R.N.C., M.S.N. “Infertility Associated with Luteal Phase Defect,” Journal of Obstetric, Gynecologic and Neonatal Nursing (May/June 1985): 212–217.

  Daviaud, Joëlle, et al. “Reliability and Feasibility of Pregnancy Home-Use Tests: Laboratory Validation and Diagnostic Evaluation by 638 Volunteers,” Clinical Chemistry 39 (January 1993): 53–59.

  De Mouzon, Jacques, M.D., et al. “Time Relationships Between Basal Body Temperature and Ovulation or Plasma Progestins,” Fertility and Sterility 41 (February 1984): 254–259.

  DeVane, Gary W., M.D. “Prolactin Measurement: What Is Normal?” Contemporary Obstetrics and Gynecology (September 1989): 99–117.

  Dewailley, D., et al. “The Physiology and Clinical Utility of Anti-Mullerian Hormone in Women,” Human Reproduction Update 20 (2014): 370–385.

  Djerassi, Carl, Ph.D. “Fertility Awareness: Jet-Age Rhythm Method?” Science (June 1990): 1061–1062.

  Domar, Alice D., Ph.D., et al. “Impact of Group Psychological Interventions on Pregnancy Rates in Infertile Women,” Fertility and Sterility 73 (April 2000): 805–811.

  . “The Prevalence and Predictability of Depression in Infertile Women,” Fertility and Sterility (December 1992): 1158–1163.

  Dunson, D. B., et al. “Increased Infertility with Age,” Obstetrics & Gynecology 103 (January 2004): 51–56.