The China-Pakistan Axis: Asia's New Geopolitics
Page 26
30. Bass, The Blood Telegram, p. 239.
31. Sisson and Rose, War and Secession, p. 251.
32. Ibid. p. 252.
33. Ibid. p. 199.
34. Bass, The Blood Telegram, p. 305.
35. Prasad, S.N., Official History of the 1971 India Pakistan War, History Division, Ministry of Defence, Government of India, New Delhi, 1992, p. 117, p. 278; Bass, The Blood Telegramp. 94.
36. CIA assessments cited in Bass, The Blood Telegram, p. 259 and p. 292; U.S. Defense Intelligence Agency, “Sino-Indian Border Troops Dispositions” [sic], 15 Jun. 1971, cited in Bass, The Blood Telegram, p. 314.
37. Khan, Memories & Reflections, p. 373.
38. Ibid. p. 378.
39. Ibid. p. 379.
40. Sisson and Rose, War and Secession, p. 233.
41. Prasad, Official History, p. 670.
42. Macfarquhar, Roderick and Michael Schoenhals, Mao’s Last Revolution, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009, p. 353.
43. Khan, Memories & Reflections, p. 345.
44. Vertzberger, Yaacov Y.I., China’s Southwestern Strategy: Encirclement and Counterencirclement, New York: Praeger, 1985, p. 54.
45. Syed, China & Pakistan, p. 152.
46. Sisson and Rose, War and Secession, p. 216.
47. Khan, Memories & Reflections, p. 307.
48. Ibid. p. 306.
49. Khan, Riaz Mohammad, “Pakistan-China Relations: An Overview”, Pakistan Horizon, Vol. 64, No. 4, Oct. 2011, p. 12.
50. Syed, China & Pakistan, p. 149.
51. Khan, Memories & Reflections, p. 307.
52. Nawaz, Shuja, Crossed Swords: Pakistan, Its Army, and the Wars Within, Karachi: Oxford University Press, 2008, p. 305.
53. Bass, The Blood Telegram, p. 310.
54. Sisson and Rose, War and Secession, p. 251.
55. Wuthnow, Joel, Chinese Diplomacy and the UN Security Council: Beyond the Veto, Oxford and New York: Routledge, 2013, p. 17.
56. Editorial, Dawn, 4 Feb. 1972.
57. Syed, China & Pakistan, p. 109.
58. Khan, Memories & Reflections, pp. 162–3.
59. Nawaz, Crossed Swords, p. 194.
60. Wolpert, Stanley, Zulfi Bhutto of Pakistan: His Life and Times, New York: Oxford University Press, 1993, p. 89.
61. Khan, Gohar Ayub, Glimpses Into the Corridors of Power, Karachi: Oxford University Press, 2007, p. 320.
62. Garver, John W., Protracted Contest: Sino-Indian Rivalry in the Twentieth Century, Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2001, p. 201.
63. Dixit, J.N., India-Pakistan in War and Peace, New York: Routledge, 2002, p. 147.
64. Syed, China & Pakistan, pp. 110–12.
65. Gupta, Bhabani Sen, The Fulcrum of Asia: Relations Among China, India, Pakistan and the U.S.S.R, New York: Pegasus, 1970, p. 213.
66. Ibid.
67. Cheng, Xiaohe, “China’s Aid toward Pakistan in the India-Pakistan War II”, Diplomacy Commentary, No. 3, 2012, p. 77.
68. Ibid. p. 81.
69. Khan, Glimpses, p. 99.
70. Gauhar, Ayub Khan, pp. 352–3.
71. Author interview, Islamabad, May 2013.
72. Author interview, Beijing, February 2014; interviewee drew on the Chinese Foreign Ministry Archive.
73. Vertzberger, China’s Southwestern Strategy, p. 43.
74. “War Diplomacy, Cease-fire and Tashkent”, UN Efforts-Restricted, Chapter XI, 1965, p. 312, http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/LAND-FORCES/Army/History/1965War/PDF/1965Chapter11.pdf, last accessed 26 Jan. 2014.
75. Kux, The United States and Pakistan, p. 165.
76. Levy, Adrian and Catherine Scott-Clark, Nuclear Deception: The Dangerous Relationship between the United States and Pakistan, New York: Walker & Company, 2007, p. 61.
77. Banerjee, Purnendu Kumar, “China in India and Pakistan”, speech to the United States Congress, Congressional Record, Washington, DC, 13 Jun. 1966, p. 12961–12964.
78. Ibid.
79. Kux, The United States and Pakistan, p. 91.
80. John W. Garver, “China’s Decision for War with India in 1962”, in Alastair Iain Johnston and Robert S. Ross (eds), New Directions in The Study of China’s Foreign Policy, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2006, p. 92.
81. Dunham, Mikel, Buddha’s Warriors, New York: Tarcher, 2004, p. 198.
82. “Agreement (with exchange of notes) on trade and intercourse between Tibet Region of China and India”, signed in Peking, 29 Apr. 1954, full text available in United Nations Treaty Series, vol. 299, United Nations, p. 57–81, https://treaties.un.org/doc/publication/unts/volume%20299/v299.pdf, last accessed 27 Jan. 2014.
83. Khan, Mohammed Ayub, “India as a Factor in Sino-Pakistani Relations”, International Studies, New Delhi, 9, No. 3, Jan. 1963, p. 292. As one illustrative account from the late 19th century has it, “it was a point of etiquette in his savage Court, on certain occasions, for a Wazir to ask in the Thum’s presence ‘Who is the greatest king of the East?’ and for another flatterer to reply ‘Surely, the Thum of Hunza; unless perhaps it be the Khan of China; for those without doubt are the greatest’”: in Edward F. Knight, Where Three Empires Meet: A Narrative of Recent Travel in Kashmir, Western Tibet, Gilgit, and the Adjoining Countries, New York: Longmans, 1893, p. 349.
84. Ibid. p. 350.
85. Mohammed Ayub Khan, “Pakistan Perspective”, Foreign Affairs, Jul. 1960; Alastair Lamb, “Crisis in Kashmir, 1947–1966”, Modern Asia Studies, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1966.
86. Mohammed Ayub Khan, “Pakistan Perspective”, Foreign Affairs, Jul. 1960.
87. Syed, China & Pakistan, p. 61.
88. Ibid. p. 75.
89. John W. Garver, “China’s Decision”, p. 95.
90. Garver, Protracted Contest, p. 57.
91. Ispahani, Mahnaz Z., Roads and Rivals: The Political Uses of Access in The Borderlands of Asia, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1989, p. 170.
92. Garver, John W., Protracted Contest: Sino-Indian Rivalry in the Twentieth Century, Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2001, pp. 100–02.
93. John W. Garver, “China’s Decision for War with India in 1962”, in Alastair Lain Johnston and Robert S. Ross (eds), New Directions in The Study of China’s Foreign Policy, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2006, p. 117.
94. Frankel, Francine R. and Harry Harding, The India-China Relationship: What the United States Needs to Know, New York: Columbia University Press, 2004, p. 30.
95. Garver, Protracted Contest, p. 57.
96. Perkovich, George, India’s Nuclear Bomb: The Impact on Global Proliferation, Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1999, p. 46.
97. Riedel, Bruce, Avoiding Armageddon: America, India and Pakistan to the Brink and Back, Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2013, p. 62.
98. Cited in Ibid.
99. Galbraith, John Kenneth, Ambassador’s Journal, Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1969, p. 434.
100. Khan, Gohar Ayub, Glimpses Into the Corridors of Power, Karachi: Oxford University Press, 2007, p. 50.
101. Gauhar, Altaf, Ayub Khan: Pakistan’s First Military Ruler, Lahore: New York: Oxford University Press, 1993, p. 202.
102. Ibid. p. 241.
103. Ibid. p. 239.
104. Ibid. p. 213.
105. Wolpert, Stanley, Zulfi Bhutto of Pakistan: His Life and Times, Oxford University Press, 1993, p. 64.
106. Ibid. p. 65.
107. Gauhar, Ayub Khan, Lahore: Oxford University Press, 1993, pp. 237–40.
108. Fravel, Taylor M., Strong Borders, Secure Nation: Cooperation and Conflict in China’s Territorial Disputes, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2009, p. 106.
109. Gauhar, Ayub Khan, p. 235.
110. Fravel, Strong Borders, p. 116.
111. Ibid. pp. 118–19.
2. NUCLEAR FUSION
1. Quoted in M. Taylor Fravel and Evan S. Medeiros, “China’s Search for Assured Retaliation: The Evolution of Chinese Nuclear Strate
gy and Force Structure”, International Security, Vol. 35, No. 2, Fall 2010, p. 61.
2. Chidanand Rajghatta, “AQ Khan blows the whistle on Pakistan”, Economic Times, 20 Sep. 2009, http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2009–09–20/news/27661296_1_uf6-china-in-enrichment-technology-aqkhan,last accessed 27 Jan. 2014.
3. “PRC envoy: China hopes to develop good bilateral ties”, Hindustan Times, 26 Feb. 1999.
4. Corera, Gordon, Shopping for Bombs: Nuclear Proliferation, Global Insecurity, and the Rise and Fall of the A.Q. Khan Network, London: C. Hurst & Co., pp. 221–22; Levy, Adrian and Catherine Scott-Clark, Nuclear Deception: The Dangerous Relationship between the United States and Pakistan, New York: Walker & Company, 2007, pp. 383–4; Joby Warrick and Peter Slevin, “Libyan arms designs traced back to China”, Washington Post, 15 Feb. 2004; David Albright and Corey Hinderstein, “Unraveling the A Q Khan and Future Proliferation Networks”, Washington Quarterly, Vol. 28, No. 2, Spring 2005, p. 32.
5. Albright, David, Peddling Peril: How the Secret Nuclear Trade Arms America’s Enemies, New York: Free Press, 2010, p. 49.
6. Khan, Feroz H., Eating Grass: The Making of The Pakistani Bomb, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2012, p. 439.
7. David Albright and Corey Hinderstein, “Uncovering the Nuclear Black Market: Working Toward Closing Gaps in the International Nonproliferation Regime”, Institute for Science and International Security, 2004, http://www.isis-online.org/publications/southasia/nuclear_black_market.html, last accessed 22 Jan. 2014.
8. David Albright quoted in Warrick and Slevin, “Libyan arms designs traced back to China”.
9. Corera, Shopping for Bombs, p. 222.
10. Warrick and Slevin, “Libyan arms designs traced back to China”.
11. Corera, Shopping for Bombs, pp. 176–94.
12. “New Documents Spotlight Reagan-era Tensions over Pakistani Nuclear Program”, National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 377, 27 Apr. 2012, http://www2.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nukevault/ebb377/, last accessed 27 Jan. 2014; “The United States and Pakistan’s Quest for the Bomb”, National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 333, 21 Dec. 2010, http://www2.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nukevault/ebb333/, last accessed 27 Jan. 2014.
13. Levy and Scott-Clark, Nuclear Deception, p. 384.
14. Corera, Shopping for Bombs; Levy and Scott-Clark, Nuclear Deception; Albright, Peddling Peril.
15. Khan, Eating Grass, p. 171.
16. Cloughey, Brian, War, Coups and Terror, Pakistan’s Army in Years of Turmoil, Huddersfield: Pen and Sword, 2008, p. 164.
17. Author interviews in Islamabad, Jun. 2013; Washington, Apr.-May 2013.
18. Author interviews in Beijing, Islamabad, and Lahore, 2008–2013.
19. Khan, Riaz Mohammad, Afghanistan and Pakistan: Conflict, Extremism, and Resistance to Modernity, Karachi: Oxford University Press, 2010, p. 346.
20. Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Good-Neighborly Relations between the People’s Republic of China and the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, 2005.
21. Khan, Sultan M., Memories & Reflections of a Pakistani Diplomat, Oxford: The Alden Press, 1997, p. 181.
22. Ibid. p. 182.
23. Ibid. p. 183.
24. Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, “If I am Assassinated”, Supreme Court of Pakistan Criminal Appeal No. 11 of 1978, p. 233, http://pt.slideshare.net/yawik/ifiamassassinatedbyshaheedbhutto-23982975, last accessed 18 Nov. 2013.
25. Yasser Latif Hamdani, “Zulfi Bhutto and Chairman Mao Tse Tung”, Friday Times, 11–17 Mar. 2011, http://www.thefridaytimes.com/11032011/page30.shtml, last accessed 18 Nov. 2013.
26. Agha Shahi, quoted in Levy and Scott-Clark, Deception: Pakistan, the United States, and the Secret Trade in Nuclear Weapons, New York: Walker Publishing, 2010, p. 61.
27. Khan, Eating Grass, p. 60; Syed, Anwar Hussain, China & Pakistan: Diplomacy of an Entente Cordiale, London: Oxford University Press, 1974, p. 10.
28. Ibid. p. 7.
29. “Chinese Policy and Practices Regarding Sensitive Nuclear Transfers”, Special National Intelligence Estimate, Director of Central Intelligence (USA), 20 Jan. 1983, declassified 30 May 2012, http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/116893, last accessed 18 Nov. 2013.
30. Lewis, John Wilson and Xue Litai, China Builds the Bomb, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1988, p. 35.
31. Ibid. p. 61.
32. Ibid. p. 99.
33. Ibid. p. 160.
34. Corera, Shopping for Bombs, p. 45.
35. Medeiros, Evan, Reluctant Restraint: The Evolution of China’s Nonproliferation Policies and Practices, 1980–2004, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2007, p. 17.
36. Ali, Mahmud, U.S.-China Cold War Collaboration, 1971–1989, Oxford: Routledge, 2005, p. 137.
37. Khan, Feroz H., Eating Grass, p. 171.
38. Jeffrey R. Smith and Joby Warrick, “Pakistani nuclear scientist’s accounts tell of Chinese proliferation”, Washington Post, 13 Nov. 2009, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/11/12/AR2009111211060.html, last accessed 27 Jan. 2014.
39. Lewis and Litai, China Builds the Bomb, p. 54.
40. Levy and Scott-Clark, Deception, p. 35.
41. Jeffrey R. Smith and Joby Warrick, “Pakistani nuclear scientist’s accounts”.
42. Ibid.
43. Ibid.
44. Khan, Eating Grass, p. 152.
45. Levy and Scott-Clark, Deception, pp. 100–01.
46. Levy and Scott-Clark, Nuclear Deception, p. 101; Corera, Shopping for Bombs, p. 45.
47. Khan, Eating Grass, p. 156.
48. Levy and Scott-Clark, Deception, p. 85.
49. Peter Lavoy, “Islamabad’s Nuclear Posture: Its Premises and Implementation”, in Henry D. Sokoloski, “Pakistan’s Nuclear Future: Worries Beyond War”, Carlisle, PA: Strategic Studies Institute, U.S. Atmy War College, Jan. 2008, http://www.strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/pdffiles/pub832.pdf, last accessed 22 Jan. 2014.
50. Khan, Eating Grass, p. 157.
51. Corera, Shopping for Bombs, p. 44.
52. R. Jeffrey Smith, “US aides see troubling trend in China-Pakistan nuclear ties”, Washington Post, 1 Apr. 1996.
53. Corera, Shopping for Bombs, p. 46.
54. “US Embassy Pakistan Cable 15696 to State Department, ‘Pakistan Nuclear Issue: Meeting with General Zia’”, 17 Oct. 1982, History and Public Policy Program Digital Archive State Department Mandatory Declassification Review release. Obtained and contributed by William Burr and included in NPIHP Research Update #6. http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/114254, last accessed 18 Nov. 2013.
55. Coll, Steve, Ghost Wars: The Secret History of the CIA, Afghanistan, and Bin Laden, from the Soviet Invasion to September 10, 2001, London: Penguin Books, 2004, p. 51.
56. U.S. Department of Defense Cable 06242 to State Department, Meeting between Secretary of Defense Harold Brown and Vice Premier Deng Xiaoping, Secretary of Defense, 8 Jan. 1980, https://www.documentcloud.org/documents/347015-doc-3–1–31–80.html, last accessed 18 Nov. 2013.
57. Kux, Dennis, The United States and Pakistan, 1947–2000: Disenchanted Allies, Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 2001, p. 259.
58. U.S. Department of State Memorandum of Conversation, RG 59, Records of Henry Kissinger, Entry 5403, Box 5, Nodis Memoranda of Conversations, 31 Oct. 1974, http://2001–2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/frus/nixon/e8/97002.htm, last accessed 18 Nov. 2013.
59. Ali, Mahmud, U.S.-China, p. 81.
60. Ibid. pp. 82–3.
61. Ibid. p. 137.
62. Akhund, Iqbal, Memoirs of a Bystander: A Life in Diplomacy, Karachi: Oxford University Press, 2000, p. 238; when I have raised this quote, and topic, with Michael Pillsbury he has stated that information around the subject remains classified.
63. Mann, James, About Face: A History of America’s Curious Relationship with China, from Nixon to Clinton, New York: Knopf, 1998, p. 73–4.
64. Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969–
1976: Volume XVIII, China, 1973–1976, Document 124, U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian, 21 Oct. 1975, http://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969–76v18/d124, last accessed 14 Feb. 2014.
65. Mann, About Face, pp. 74–5; Ali, U.S.-China, 2005, p. 142.
66. Ali, U.S.-China, p. 142.
67. Fravel and Medeiros, “China’s Search”, p. 54.
68. Tyler, Patrick, A Great Wall: Six Presidents and China: An Investigative History, New York: A Century Foundation Book, 1999, p. 285.
69. Michael Pillsbury, “U.S.-Chinese Military Ties?”, Foreign Policy, No. 20, Autumn 1975, p. 58.
70. “China Policy and the National Security Council”, National Security Council Project Oral History Roundtables, Ivo H. Daalder and I.M. Destler (moderators); Shakira Edwards and Josh Pollack (rapporteurs), 4 Nov. 1999.
71. Tyler, A Great Wall, pp. 284–5.
72. US Department of Commerce, “US-China Relations”, Washington, DC, Aug. 1995, in Ali, U.S.-China, p. 251.
73. Tyler, A Great Wall, pp. 284–5.
74. Jeffrey T. Richelson, “The Wizards of Langley: The CIA’s Directorate of Science and Technology” in Jeffreys-Jones, Rhodri and Christopher M. Andrew (eds), Eternal Vigilance? 50 Years of the CIA, Newbury Park: Frank Cass and Company, 1997, p. 94.
75. Gates, Robert M., From the Shadows: The Ultimate Insider’s Story of Five Presidents and How They Won the Cold War, New York: Simon & Schuster, 2007, p. 123; Bob Woodward, Veil: The Secret Wars of the CIA, 1981–1987, New York: Simon & Schuster, 2005, pp. 63–4.
76. Gates, From the Shadows, p. 123.
77. James A. Gregor, “The People’s Republic of China as a Western Security Asset”, Air University Review, Jul.-Aug. 1983, http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/aureview/1983/jul-aug/gregor.html, last accessed 22 Jan. 2014.
78. “Risk Assessment of the Sale of the e69”, Central Intelligence Agency, Memorandum for Frank Carlucci, Document number CIA-RD84B000 49R001604090013–3, approved for release 14 Jun. 2007. http://s3.documentcloud.org/documents/347031/doc-15-a-11–8–82.txt, last accessed 23 Jan. 2014.
79. Ibid.
80. Albright, David and Paul Brannan and Andrea Scheel Stricker, “Self-Serving Leaks from the A.Q. Khan Circle”, Institute for Science and International Security, 9 Dec. 2009, http://isis-online.org/isis-reports/detail/self-serving-leaks-from-the-a.q.-khan-circle/20, last accessed 27 Jan. 2014.