Glimpses of World History

by Jawaharlal Nehru

  In 1577 Drake went out with five ships to plunder the Spanish colonies. He was successful in the raid, but he lost four of his ships. Only one of the ships—the Golden Hind—reached the Pacific, and Drake came back to England in this via the Cape of Good Hope. Thus he went right round the world, and the Golden Hind was the second ship to do so, the first being Magellan’s Vittoria. It took three years to go round.

  The singeing of the Spanish King’s beard could not go on for long without leading to trouble, and soon war came between England and Spain. The Dutch were already fighting Spain. Portugal was also involved in this war, as for some years past the same king had been ruling over Spain and Portugal. With a great deal of good luck and determination, England, to the surprise of Europe, came well out of this war. The “Invincible Armada” sent by Spain to conquer Britain was, you will remember, wrecked. But we are for the present concerned with the East.

  Both the English and the Dutch invaded the Far East and attacked the Spanish and Portuguese. The Spanish were all concentrated in the Philippines, and they could easily defend it. But the Portuguese were hard hit. Their Eastern Empire spread for 6000 miles from the Red Sea to the Moluccas, the Spice Islands. They were established near Aden, in the Persian Gulf, in Ceylon, in many places on the Indian coast, and of course all over the Eastern islands and in Malay. Gradually they lost their Eastern Empire; town after town, settlement after settlement, went to the Dutch or the English. Even Malacca fell in 1641. All that remained were a few small outposts in India and elsewhere. Goa in western India was the chief of these, and the Portuguese are still there, and it forms part of the Portuguese Republic which was established some years ago.

  The great Akbar tried to take Goa from the Portuguese, but even he did not succeed.

  So Portugal passes out of Eastern history. The little country had taken an enormous mouthful. It could not swallow it, and it exhausted itself in the attempt. Spain sticks on to the Philippines, but plays little part in Eastern affairs. The mastery of the valuable Eastern trade now passes to Holland and England. Both these countries had already laid themselves out for this by the formation of trading companies. In England Queen Elizabeth gave a charter in 1600 to the East India Company. Two years later the Dutch East India Company was formed. Both these companies were meant for trade only. They were private companies, but they were often helped by the State. They were mostly interested in the Malaysian spice trade. India was at the time a powerful country under the Moghal Emperors and could not be safely angered.

  The Dutch and the English often fell out amongst themselves, and the English ultimately withdrew from the Eastern islands and paid more attention to India. The great Moghal Empire was then weakening, and this afforded an opportunity to foreign adventurers. We shall see later how such adventurers came from England and France and tried, by intrigue and fighting, to get parts of this dissolving empire.

  80

  An Age of Peace and Prosperity in China

  July 22, 1932

  So you have been ill, my dear, and, for aught I know, may still be laid up. It takes time for news to reach the inside of a gaol. I can do very little to help you, and you will have to look after yourself. But I shall think of you a great deal. Strange, how we are all spread out—you, far away in Poona; Mummie, unwell in Allahabad; and the rest of us in various prisons!

  For some days I have found it a little difficult to write these letters to you. It was not easy to keep up the pretence of having a talk with you. I thought of you lying ill in Poona, and I wondered when I would see you again; how many more months or years would pass before we met; and how you would have grown during the interval.

  But too much of musing is not good, especially in gaol, and I must pull myself up, and forget today for a while, and think of yesterday.

  We were in Malaysia, were we not? And we saw a strange happening. Europe was becoming aggressive in Asia; the Portuguese came, and then the Spanish; and later came the English and the Dutch. But the activities of these Europeans were for a long time largely confined to Malaysia and the islands. To the west there was a strong India under the Moghals; to the north was China, also well able to look after herself. So India and China had little interference from the Europeans.

  It is but a step from Malaysia to China. Let us go there now. The Yuan dynasty founded by Kublai Khan, the Mongol, is gone. A popular rebellion drove the last of the Mongol forces beyond the Great Wall in 1368. The leader of rebellion was Hung Wu, who began life as the son of a poor labourer and had little school education. But he was a good pupil in the larger school of life, and he became a successful leader, and later a wise ruler. He did not get puffed up with conceit and pride because he had become an emperor, but throughout his life he remembered that he was a son of the people. He reigned for thirty years, and his reign is remembered still for his continuous efforts to better the ordinary people from whom he had come. To the end he retained his early simplicity of tastes.

  Hung Wu was the first Emperor of the new Ming dynasty. His son, Yung Lo, was also a great ruler. He was Emperor from 1402 to 1424. But I must not inflict these Chinese names upon you. There were several good rulers and then, as usually happens, there was deterioration. But let us forget the emperors and consider this period in China’s history. It is a bright period, and there is a singular charm about it. The word “Ming” itself means bright. The Ming dynasty lasted for 276 years—from 1368 to 1644. It is the most typically Chinese of all dynasties, and during their rule the genius of the Chinese people had full scope. It is a period of peace, both domestic and foreign. There is no aggressive foreign policy; no imperialist adventure. There is friendship with the neighbouring countries. Only in the north there is some danger from the nomadic Tartar tribes. For the rest of the eastern world China is very much the elder brother, the clever, favoured and cultured one, very conscious of his superiority, but wishing well to the younger brothers and willing to teach them and share with them his own culture and civilization. And they in their turn all looked up to him. For some time Japan even acknowledged the suzerainty of China, and the Shogun, who ruled Japan, called himself the vassal of the Ming Emperor. From Korea and from the Indonesian islands—Java, Sumatra, etc.—and Indo-China came tribute.

  It was in Yung Lo’s reign that the great naval expedition under Admiral Cheng Ho went out to Malaysia. For nearly thirty years Cheng Ho wandered all over the eastern seas right up to the Persian Gulf. This looks like an imperialist attempt to overawe the island States. Apparently, however, there was no intention of conquest or other gain. The growing power of Siam and Madjapahit probably induced Yung Lo to send out this expedition. But, whatever the reason may have been, the expedition had very great results. It checked Madjapahit and Siam, and encouraged the new Muslim State of Malacca; and it spread Chinese culture all over Indonesia and the East.

  Because there was peace and friendship between China and her neighbours, more attention could be given to domestic affairs. There was good government, and the burden on the peasantry was lessened by a lowering of the taxes. The roads and waterways and canals and reservoirs were improved. Public granaries were established to make provision for bad harvests and hard times. The government issued paper money, and thus increased credit and facilitated trade and the exchange of commodities. This paper money was widely used, and 70 per cent of the taxes could be paid in it.

  Even more notable was the cultural history of this period. The Chinese have for ages been a cultured and artistic people. The good government of the Ming period and the encouragement given to art brought out the genius of the people. Splendid buildings arose, and great paintings, and the Ming porcelains are famous for their graceful shapes and beautiful workmanship. The paintings rivalled those great ones which Italy was then producing under the urge of the Renaissance.

  China at the end of the fifteenth century was far ahead of Europe in wealth, industry, and culture. During the whole of the Ming period, no country in Europe or elsewhere could compare with China i
n the happiness and artistic activity of its people. And remember that this covered the great Renaissance period in Europe.

  One of the reasons why the Ming period is very well known artistically is because it has left for us numerous examples of its fine work. There are big monuments, and fine carving in wood and ivory and jade, and bronze vases and porcelains. Towards the end of the Ming period the designs have a tendency to become too elaborate, and this rather spoils the carving or painting.

  It was during this period that the Portuguese ships first came to China. They reached Canton in 1516. Albuquerque had taken good care to treat all the Chinese he came across well, and favourable reports had reached China. So they were well received. But soon afterwards the Portuguese started misbehaving in many ways and erected forts at several places. The Chinese Government was surprised at this barbarity. It took no hasty action, but ultimately it drove the whole lot of them out. The Portuguese then realized that their usual methods did not pay in China. They became more peaceful and humble, and in 1557 they obtained permission to settle down near Canton. Macao was then founded by them.

  With the Portuguese came Christian missionaries. One of the most famous of these was St. Francis Xavier. He spent a good deal of his time in India, and you will find many missionary colleges named after him. He also went to Japan. He died in a Chinese port before he was allowed to land. Christian missionaries were not encouraged by the Chinese. Two Jesuit priests, however, disguised themselves as Buddhist students and studied Chinese for several years. They became great Confucian scholars and also won reputations as scientists. One of these was named Matteo Ricci. He was a very able and brilliant scholar, and was also tactful enough to get round the Emperor. He threw off his disguise later, and through his influence Christianity attained a much better position in China.

  The Dutch came to Macao early in the seventeenth century. They asked for permission to trade. But there was little love between them and the Portuguese and the latter tried their best to prejudice the Chinese against them. They told the Chinese that the Dutch were a nation of ferocious pirates. So the Chinese refused to give permission. A few years later the Dutch sent a big fleet from their city of Batavia in Java to Macao. Very foolishly they tried to take Macao by force, but the Chinese and Portuguese were much too strong for them.

  The English followed the Dutch, but they also had little success. It was after the Ming period was over that they got a share in the China trade.

  The Ming period, like all things, good and bad, came to an end about the middle of the seventeenth century. The little Tartar cloud in the north grew and grew till it cast its shadow on China itself. You will remember the old Kin or Golden Tartars. They had driven away the Sungs to the south of China, and they in their turn were driven out by the Mongols. A new tribe, cousin to these Kins, now became prominent north of China, where Manchuria is now. They called themselves Manchus. It was these Manchus who finally replaced the Mings.

  But the Manchus would have had great difficulty in conquering China if China had not been split up into rival factions. Foreign invasions in almost every country—China, India, etc.—have always succeeded because of the weakness of that country and the internal conflicts of its people. So in China there were disturbances all over the country. Perhaps the later Ming emperors were corrupt and incompetent, or economic conditions were such as to bring about a social revolution. The struggle against the Manchus was also costly, and became a great strain. Brigand leaders cropped up everywhere, and the biggest of these was actually emperor for a short time. The general of the Mings who was leading the armies against the Manchus was Wu San-Kwei. He was hard put to it to know what to do between the brigand emperor and the Manchus. Very foolishly, or perhaps traitorously, he asked the Manchus to help him against the brigand. The Manchus gladly did so—and of course remained in Peking! Wu San-Kwei then, convinced of the helplessness of the Ming cause, deserted it and joined the foreign invaders, the Manchus.

  It is not surprising that this man, Wu San-Kwei, is loathed in China to this day and regarded as one of the great traitors of their history. Entrusted with the defence of the country, he went over to the enemy and actually helped him to bring about the submission of the southern provinces. His reward came by his appointment by the Manchus as the viceroy of these very provinces he had won for them.

  By 1650 the city of Canton was captured by the Manchus and the conquest of China was complete. They won perhaps because they were better fighters than the Chinese. Perhaps too long a period of peace and prosperity had weakened the Chinese in a military sense. But the rapidity of the Manchu conquest was due to other reasons also, notably the great care they took to conciliate the Chinese In former times the Tartar invasions were often accompanied by cruelty and massacre. On this occasion every effort was made to win over the Chinese officials and these very persons were appointed again to offices. Thus Chinese officials occupied the highest posts. The old Ming methods of government were also not changed. The system appeared to be the same, but the guiding hands at the top were altered.

  But two important facts denoted that the Chinese were under foreign rule. Manchu troops were stationed at important centres; and the Manchu custom of wearing the queue or pigtail was imposed on the Chinese as a sign of submission. Most of us have always associated the Chinese with these pigtails. But it was not a Chinese custom at all. It was a sign of slavery, like the many signs which some Indians adopt today without feeling the shame and the degradation of it. The Chinese have now given up the pigtail.

  So ended this bright Ming period in China. One wonders why it fell so rapidly after nearly three centuries of good government. If the government was as good as it is supposed to be, why were there revolts and internal troubles? Why could not the foreign invaders from Manchuria be stopped? Probably the government became oppressive towards the end. And it may be that too much parental government weakened the people. Spoon-feeding is not good for children or nations.

  One wonders also why China during these days, highly cultured as she was, did not advance in other directions—science, discovery, etc. The peoples of Europe were far behind her; yet you can see them, during the days of the Renaissance, full of energy and adventure and the spirit of inquiry. You can compare the two to a cultured person of middle age, rather fond of a quiet life, not keen on new adventure and a disturbance of his routine, busy with his classics and his art; and a young boy, rather uncouth, but full of energy and inquiry and seeking adventure everywhere. There is a great beauty in China, but it is the calm beauty of the afternoon or evening.

  81

  Japan Shuts Herself up

  July 23, 1932

  From China we might as well go on to Japan, making a very brief stay in Korea on the way. The Mongols had of course dominated Korea. They had tried to attack Japan also, but without success. Kublai Khan sent several expeditions to Japan, but they were repelled. The Mongols never seem to have felt at ease on the sea. They were essentially continental people. Japan, being an island, escaped them.

  Soon after the Mongols were driven out of China, there was a revolution in Korea, and the rulers who had submitted to the Mongols were driven out. The leader of this revolt was a patriot Korean, Yi Tai-jo. He became the new ruler and the founder of a dynasty which lasted over 600 years—from 1392 till quite recent times when Japan annexed Korea. Seoul was then made the capital, and it has remained so ever since. We cannot go into these 500 years of Korean history. Korea, or Chosen, as it was again called, carried on, an almost independent country, but under the shadow of China and often paying tribute to it. With Japan there were several wars, and on some occasions Korea was successful. But now there is no comparison between the two. Japan is a great and powerful empire, with all the vices of imperialist Powers; poor Korea is a bit of this empire, ruled and exploited by the Japanese, and struggling rather helplessly, but bravely, for her freedom. But this is recent history, and we are still in the distant past.

  In Japan, you will remembe
r that the Shogun had become the real ruler towards the end of the twelfth century. The Emperor was almost a figurehead. The first Shogunate, known as the Kamakura Shogunate, lasted for nearly 150 years and gave the country efficient government and peace. The usual decline of the ruling dynasty followed, and inefficiency and luxury and civil war. There were conflicts between the Emperor who wanted to assert himself, and the Shogun. The Emperor failed, and so did the old Shogunate, and a new line of Shoguns rose to power in 1338. This was the Ashikaga Shogunate, which lasted for 235 years. But this was a period of conflict and war. It was almost contemporaneous with the Mings in China. One of these Shoguns was very anxious to win the goodwill of the Mings, and he went so far as to acknowledge himself the vassal of the Ming Emperor. Japanese historians are very annoyed at this slight to Japan and bitterly denounce this man.

  Relations with China were naturally very friendly, and a new interest arose in Chinese culture which was then flowering under the Mings. Everything Chinese was studied and admired—painting, poetry, architecture, philosophy, and even the science of war. Two famous buildings, the Kinkakuji (the Golden Pavilion) and the Ginkakuji (the Silver Pavilion), were built at this time.

  Side by side with this artistic development and luxury, there was much suffering of the peasantry. Taxation of the peasants was exceedingly heavy, and the burden of the civil wars fell largely on them. Conditions became worse and worse till the Central Government hardly functioned outside the capital.

  The Portuguese arrived in 1542 during these wars. It is interesting to note that firearms were first brought to Japan by them. This seems very strange, as China had long known them, and indeed Europe had got to know of them from China, through the Mongols.