Crisis and Command: A History of Executive Power from George Washington to George W. Bush

by John Yoo

  4 Ben Bernanke, Essays on the Great Depression (2000).

  5 Kennedy, supra note 1, at 164-65.

  6 See Friedman & Schwartz, supra note 3; Meltzer, supra note 3, at 271.

  7 Ellis Hawley, The Constitution of the Hoover and Franklin Roosevelt Presidency During the Depression Era, 1930-1939, in The Constitution and the American Presidency 83, 90-91 (Martin Fausold & Alan Shank eds., 1991).

  8 2 The Public Papers and Addresses of Franklin D. Roosevelt 14-15 (Samuel I. Rosenman ed., 1938-1950).

  9 Trading with the Enemy Act of 1917, 50 U.S.C. app. SS 1 (2000).

  10 Hawley, supra note 7, at 92.

  11 See Thomas Hall & David Ferguson, The Great Depression: An International Disaster of Perverse Economic Policies 124-26 (1998).

  12 William Leuchtenberg, The FDR Years: On Roosevelt and His Legacy 53 (1995).

  13 United States v. E. C. Knight, 156 U.S. 1 (1895).

  14 Hammer v. Dagenhart, 247 U.S. 251 (1918).

  15 Bailey v. Drexel Furniture Co., 259 U.S. 20 (1922).

  16 Lochner v. New York, 198 U.S. 45 (1905).

  17 See, e.g., Adair v. United States, 208 U.S. 161 (1908) (federal labor law); Adkins v. Children's Hospital, 261 U.S. 525 (1923) (minimum wages); Williams v. Standard Oil Co., 278 U.S. 235 (1929) (setting prices of gasoline); New State Ice Co. v. Liebmann, 285 U.S. 262 (1932) (limiting entry into business); Jesse Choper, et al., Constitutional Law--Cases, Comments, Questions 292 (9th ed. 2001).

  18 Robert Stern, The Commerce Clause and the National Economy, 1933-1946, 59 Harvard Law Review 645, 883 (1946).

  19 William Leuchtenburg, The Supreme Court Reborn: The Constitutional Revolution in the Age of Roosevelt 83-84 (1995).

  20 Home Building & Loan Ass'n v. Blaisdell, 290 U.S. 398 (1934); Nebbia v. New York, 291 U.S. 502 (1934).

  21 Panama Refining Co. v. Ryan, 293 U.S. 388 (1935).

  22 U.S. 495 (1935).

  23 Ibid. at 528.

  24 Franklin D. Roosevelt, The 209th Press Conference (May 31, 1935), in 4 The Public Papers and Addresses of Franklin D. Roosevelt 1935, at 221 (1938).

  25 Ibid.

  26 William Leuchtenburg, The Origins of Franklin D. Roosevelt's "Court-Packing" Plan, 1966 Supreme Court Review 347, 351-54 (hereinafter "Leuchtenburg, Court-Packing").

  27 Norman v. B. & O. R.R., 294 U.S. 240 (1935).

  28 297 U.S. 1 (1936).

  29 298 U.S. 238 (1936).

  30 298 U.S. 1 (1936).

  31 298 U.S. 587 (1936).

  32 81 Cong. Rec. 878 (1937) (reprinting FDR's message to Congress).

  33 Ibid.

  34 Barry Cushman, Rethinking the New Deal Court, 80 Virginia Law Review 201, (1994).

  35 Ibid. at 214-15.

  36 Ibid. at 221.

  37 West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish, 300 U.S. 379 (1937).

  38 NLRB v. Jones & Laughlin Steel Corp., 301 U.S. 1 (1937); NLRB v. Fruehauf Trailer Co., 301 U.S. 49 (1937); NLRB v. Friedman-Harry Marks Clothing Co., 301 U.S. 58 (1937); and Associated Press v. NLRB, 301 U.S. 103 (1937); and Washington, Virginia & Maryland Coach Co. v. NLRB, 301 U.S. 142 (1937).

  39 3 01 U.S. 1, 41 (1937).

  40 Cushman, supra note 34, at 222-23.

  41 See, e.g., Steward Machine Co. v. Davis, 301 U.S. 548 (1937); and Helvering v. Davis, 301 U.S. 619 (1937).

  42 See, e.g., Joseph Alsop & Turner Catledge, The 168 Days (1938); and Merlo Pusey, The Supreme Court Crisis (1937).

  43 1 Bruce Ackerman, We the People: Foundations 105-30 (1991).

  44 See generally Cushman, supra note 1.

  45 See, e.g., United States v. Darby, 312 U.S. 100 (1941).

  46 See, e.g., David M. Kennedy, Over Here: The First World War and American Society (1980); Stephen Skowronek, Building a New American State: The Expansion of National Administrative Capacities 1877-1920 (1982); Robert H. Wiebe, The Search for Order, 1877-1920 (1966).

  47 Marc Landy & Sidney Milkis, Presidential Greatness 153-54 (2000).

  48 Burns, Roosevelt: The Lion and the Fox, supra note 1, at 174.

  49 Ibid. at 150.

  50 Christopher Yoo, Steven Calabresi & Laurence Nee, The Unitary Executive During the Third Half-Century, 1889-1945, 80 Notre Dame Law Review 1, 83-84 (2004).

  51 The classic work on the origins of the independent agencies remains Robert E. Cushman, The Independent Regulatory Commissions (1941). For more recent analyses, see Geoffrey P. Miller, Independent Agencies, 1986 Supreme Court Review 41; Peter L. Strauss, The Place of Agencies in Government: Separation of Powers and the Fourth Branch, 84 Columbia Law Review 573 (1984); and Paul R. Verkuil, The Status of Independent Agencies after Bowsher v. Synar, 1986 Duke Law Journal 779.

  52 Steven G. Calabresi & Christopher S. Yoo, The Unitary Executive: Presidential Power from Washington to Bush 284-88 (2008).

  53 Humphrey's Executor v. United States, 295 U.S. 602, 620 (1935).

  54 Yoo, Calabresi & Nee, supra note 50, at 85.

  55 Myers v. United States, 272 U.S. 52, 117 (1926).

  56 Humphrey's Executor, 295 U.S. 602, 629 (1935).

  57 See, e.g., Morrison v. Olson, 529 U.S. 654 (1988); and Mistretta v. United States, 488 U.S. 361 (1989).

  58 Compare Hadley Arkes, The Return of George Sutherland (1997).

  59 Yoo, Calabresi & Nee, supra note 50, at 88-89.

  60 The federal courts upheld FDR's decision, ultimately holding that Congress had failed to clearly prevent the President from firing on other grounds in addition to criteria it listed. See Morgan v. TVA, 28 F. Supp. 732 (E.D. Tenn. 1939), aff'd, 115 F.2d 990 (6th Cir. 1940); and Yoo, Calabresi & Nee, supra note 50, at 89-90.

  61 See Peri Arnold, Making the Managerial Presidency: Comprehensive Reorganization Planning, 1905-1996, at 103-17 (1986).

  62 See Matthew Dickinson, Bitter Harvest: FDR, Presidential Power, and the Growth of the Presidential Branch 104-10 (1996).

  63 Arnold, supra note 61, at 103-17.

  64 Dickinson, supra note 62, at 111.

  65 Leuchtenburg, supra note 1, at 277-80.

  66 See, e.g., Christopher C. DeMuth & Douglas H. Ginsburg, White House Review of Agency Decisionmaking, 99 Harvard Law Review 1075 (1986); Alan B. Morrison, OMB Interference with Agency Rulemaking: The Wrong Way to Write a Regulation, 99 Harvard Law Review 1059 (1986); Terry Eastland, Energy in the Executive: The Case for the Strong Presidency 163 (1992); and Elena Kagan, Presidential Administration, 114 Harvard Law Review 1075, 2245 (2001).

  67 On the way that Presidents today manage policy development through the White House and the Executive Office of the President, see Andrew Rudalevige, Managing the President's Program: Presidential Leadership and Legislative Policy Formation 18-62 (2002).

  68 United States v. Lovett, 328 U.S. 303 (1946).

  69 Plessy v. Ferguson, 163 U.S. 537 (1896).

  70 Exec. Order No. 8802, 6 Fed. Reg. 3109 (June 25, 1941).

  71 Exec. Order No. 9346, 8 Fed. Reg. 7183 (May 27, 1943).

  72 See, e.g., Barry D. Karl, Constitution and Central Planning: The Third New Deal Revisited, 1988 Supreme Court Review 163, 188; Peter Evans et al. eds., Bringing the State Back In (1985); and Theda Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States (1995).

  73 For a more extensive discussion of the transformation of American politics wrought by the New Deal, see Milkis, supra note 1, at 21-51, 149-183; and Theodore J. Lowi, The End of Liberalism: The Second Republic of the United States (2d ed. 1979).

  74 Important historical works on FDR and American entry into World War II include Robert Dallek, Franklin D. Roosevelt and American Foreign Policy, 1932-45 (1979); Robert Divine, The Illusion of Neutrality (1962); Waldo Heinrichs, Threshold of War: Franklin D. Roosevelt and American Entry into World War II (1988); Patrick Hearden, Roosevelt Confronts Hitler: America's Entry into World War II (1987); Warren Kimball, The Juggler: Franklin Roosevelt as Wartime Statesman (1991); Frederick W. Marks III, Wind Over Sand: The Diplomacy of Franklin Roosevelt (1988); Davi
d Reynolds, The Creation of the Anglo-American Alliance, 1937-1941: A Study in Competitive Co-operation (1982); and Akira Iriye, The Origins of the Second World War in Asia and the Pacific (1987). The day-to-day events of American entry into World War II are traced in William Langer & S. Everett Gleason, The Undeclared War: 1940-1941 (1953), and the events leading up to World War II are described in Donald C. Watt, How War Came: The Immediate Origins of the Second World War, 1938-1939 (1990); and John Keegan, The Second World War (2005). U.S. diplomacy in the war itself is discussed by Akira Iriye, The Globalizing of America, 1913-1945 (1995).

  75 For a summary of the debates, see Gordon Prange, et al., At Dawn We Slept (2001).

  76 See Marc Trachtenberg, The Craft of International History: A Guide to Method 79-139 (2006).

  77 See, e.g., Marks, supra note 74, at 163.

  78 Arkes, supra note 58.

  79 299 U.S. 304 (1936).

  80 Curtiss-Wright, Our History, available at www.curtisswright.com/history.asp.

  81 Curtiss-Wright Export Corp., 299 U.S. at 318. Scholars have not been kind to Justice Sutherland's analysis. For critical discussion of Curtiss-Wright, see David M. Levitan, The Foreign Relations Power: An Analysis of Mr. Justice Sutherland's Theory, 55 Yale Law Journal 467 (1946); Charles A. Lofgren, United States v. Curtiss-Wright Export Corp.: An Historical Reassessment, 83 Yale Law Journal 1 (1973); and Louis Henkin, Foreign Affairs and the Constitution 19-20 (2d ed. 1996).

  82 United States v. Belmont, 301 U.S. 324, 331 (1937). See also Michael D. Ramsey, Executive Agreements and the (Non)Treaty Power, 77 North Carolina Law Review 133 (1998); and Joel R. Paul, The Geopolitical Constitution: Executive Expediency and Executive Agreements, 86 California Law Review 671 (1998).

  83 Congressional Research Service, Treaties and Other International Agreements: The Role of the United States Senate, S. Prt. 106-71, 106th Cong., 2d Sess. 39 (2001).

  84 Dames & Moore v. Regan, 453 U.S. 654 (1981) (Iranian hostages); American Insurance Association v. Garamendi, 539 U.S. 396 (2003) (Holocaust-survivor claims).

  85 Dallek, supra note 74, at 102.

  86 See, e.g., Robert Kagan, Dangerous Nation: America's Foreign Policy from Its Earliest Days to the Dawn of the Twentieth Century (2007); and John Lewis Gaddis, Surprise, Security, and the American Experience (2005).

  87 Trachtenberg, supra note 76, at 118.

  88 Ibid. at 118-19.

  89 Fireside Chat 16: On the Arsenal of Democracy, Dec. 29, 1940, at //millercenter.org/scripps/archive/speeches/detail/3319.

  90 Dallek, supra note 74, at 267.

  91 Ibid. at 109.

  92 Neutrality Act of 1935, ch. 837, 49 Stat. 1081 (1935).

  93 Dallek, supra note 74, at 110.

  94 Neutrality Act of 1936, ch. 106, 49 Stat. 1152 (1936).

  95 Neutrality Act of 1937, ch. 146, 50 Stat. 121 (1937).

  96 Dallek, supra note 74, at 285.

  97 Neutrality Act of 1939, ch. 2, 54 Stat. 4 (1939).

  98 Aaron X. Fellmeth, A Divorce Waiting to Happen: Franklin Roosevelt and the Law of Neutrality, 1935-1941, 3 Buff. J. Int'l L. 414, 451 (1996-97).

  99 Ibid. at 457.

  100 Dallek, supra note 74, at 190.

  101 Ibid. at 222.

  102 Fellmeth, supra note 98, at 464.

  103 Dallek, supra note 74, at 221-22.

  104 Address at University of Virginia, June 10, 1940, in The Public Papers and Addresses of Franklin D. Roosevelt 1940, at 259, 261-62 (Samuel I. Rosenman ed., 1941).

  105 Dallek, supra note 74, at 232.

  106 Ibid. at 243.

  107 Ibid.

  108 Fellmeth, supra note 98, at 467-68.

  109 Act of June 28, 1940, SS 14, 54 Stat. 676, 681 (1940); and Espionage Act of 1917, ch. 30, 40 Stat. 222 (1917).

  110 Dallek, supra note 74, at 244.

  111 Fellmeth, supra note 98, at 476-78.

  112 Acquisition of Naval and Air Bases in Exchange for Over-Age Destroyers, 39 Opp. Atty'y Gen. 484, reprinted in H. Jefferson Powell ed., The Constitution and the Attorneys General 307, 308 (1999).

  113 Training of British Flying Students in the United States, 40 Op. Att'y Gen. 58 (May 23, 1941), reprinted in Ibid. at 316, 317.

  114 Dallek, supra note 74, at 245.

  115 Quoted in Kenneth S. Davis, FDR: Into the Storm 1937-40, at 611 (1993).

  116 Edwin Borchard, The Attorney General's Opinion on the Exchange of Destroyers for Naval Bases, 34 Am J Int'l L 690, 691 (1940).

  117 Edward S. Corwin, Executive Authority Held Exceeded in Destroyer Deal, N.Y. Times, Oct. 13, 1940.

  118 Davis, supra note 115, at 608.

  119 Ibid. at 603-04.

  120 Quoted in Ibid. at 614.

  121 Campaign Address at Boston, Massachusetts, Oct. 30, 1940, in FDR Papers 1940, supra note 104, at 514, 517.

  122 Hearden, supra note 74, at 192.

  123 Kenneth S. Davis, FDR: The War President, 1940-43, at 63 (2000).

  124 Ibid. at 65.

  125 The Seven Hundred and Second Press Conference, Dec. 17, 1940, in FDR Papers 1940, supra note 104, at 604, 607-08.

  126 Fireside Chat on National Security, Dec. 29, 1940, in Ibid. at 633.

  127 Dallek, supra note 74, at 257.

  128 55 Stat. 31 (1941). For the lengthy congressional discussions, see Davis, supra note 123, at 92-136.

  129 Fellmeth, supra note 98, at 485-86.

  130 Radio Address Announcing the Proclamation of an Unlimited National Emergency, May 27, 1941, in The Public Papers and Addresses of Franklin D. Roosevelt 1941, at 181, 189 (1950).

  131 Dallek, supra note 74, at 275-77.

  132 Fellmeth, supra note 98, at 466-67.

  133 Trachtenberg, supra note 76, at 80-139.

  134 Colin S. Gray, The Implications of Preemptive and Preventive War Doctrines: A Reconsideration 23 (2007), available at www.strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/pubs/display.cfm?pudID=789. See also Hew Strachan, Preemption and Prevention in Historical Perspective, in Preemption: Military Action and Moral Justification 23 (Henry Shue & David Rodin eds., 2007).

  135 The Atlantic Charter, in FDR Papers 1941, supra note 130, at 314.

  136 Dallek, supra note 74, at 285.

  137 Fireside Chat to the Nation, Sept. 11, 1941, in FDR Papers 1941, supra note 130, at 384, 390.

  138 Dallek, supra note 74, at 289.

  139 Navy and Total Defense Day Address, Oct. 27, 1941, in Ibid. at 438, 439.

  140 Dallek, supra note 74, at 300.

  141 Ibid. at 304.

  142 Ibid. at 307.

  143 For a critical review of the history, compare John Yoo, War by Other Means: An Insider's Account of the War on Terror 204-230 (2006) with Louis Fisher, Military Tribunals & Presidential Power: American Revolution to the War on Terrorism (2005).

  144 See David Danelski, The Saboteurs' Case, 1 Journal of Supreme Court History 61, 61-65 (1996).

  145 Ibid. at 65-66.

  146 Ibid. at 66-67.

  147 7 Fed. Reg. 5101 (1942); see also Fisher, supra note 143, at 98-99.

  148 7 Fed. Reg. 5103 (1942); see also Fisher, supra note 143, at 99-100.

  149 Ex Parte Milligan, 71 U.S. 2, 121-22 (1866).

  150 Danelski, supra note 144, at 68-69.

  151 Ibid. at 69.

  152 See Peter Irons, Justice at War: The History of the Japanese American Internment Cases 19 (1983).

  153 7 Fed. Reg. 1407.

  154 Greg Robinson, By Order of the President: FDR and the Internment of the Japanese Americans (2003).

  155 See, e.g., Irons, supra note 152; Robinson, supra note 154; and Erik Yamamoto et al., Race, Rights & Reparation: Law and the Japanese American Internment (2001).

  156 Robinson, supra note 154, at 95.

  157 Ibid. at 104.

  158 Davis, supra note 123, at 424.

  159 Robinson, supra note 154, at 118.

  160 Act of Mar. 21, 1942, ch. 191, Pub. L. No. 77-503, 56 Stat. 173.

  161 Korematsu v. United States, 323 U.S. 214 (19
44).

  162 Ibid. at 217-18.

  163 Ibid. at 218 (quoting Hirabayashi v. United States, 320 U.S. 81 (1943)).

  164 Ibid. at 223-24.

  165 Ibid. at 226 (Roberts, J., dissenting).

  166 Ibid. at 234 (Murphy, J., dissenting).

  167 Ibid. at 235-36 (Murphy, J., dissenting).

  168 Ibid. at 244 (Jackson, J., dissenting).

  169 Ex Parte Endo, 323 U.S. 283 (1944); see Brief for the United States, Korematsu (No. 22), reprinted in 42 Landmark Briefs and Arguments of the Supreme Court of the United States: Constitutional Law 197 (Philip B. Kurland & Gerhard Casper eds., 1975); and Robinson, supra note 154, at 210.

  170 Act of July 6, 1798, ch. 66, SS1, 1 Stat. 577 (codified at 50 U.S.C. SS 21). After the war, the Supreme Court upheld the use of the Alien Enemies Act during World War II in the case of a German national detained in the United States. See Ludecke v. Watkins, 335 U.S. 160 (1948).

  171 Christopher Andrew, For the President's Eyes Only, at 6-9, 76 (1995).

  172 Ibid. at 88, 94.

  173 Ibid. at 92.

  174 Reprinted in Appendix A, United States v. United States District Court, 444 F.2d 651, 669-70 (6th Cir. 1971) (hereinafter "Roosevelt 1940 Memorandum").

  175 Olmstead v. United States, 277 U.S. 438 (1928).

  176 389 U.S. 347 (1967).

  177 United States v. Nardone, 302 U.S. 379 (1937).

  178 United States v. Nardone, 308 U.S. 338 (1939).

  179 Robert H. Jackson, That Man: An Insider's Portrait of Franklin D. Roosevelt 68-69 (2003).

  180 Roosevelt 1940 Memorandum, supra note 174.

  CHAPTER 8: THE COLD WAR PRESIDENTS

  1 5 Historical Statistics of the United States, Millennial Edition Online 5-353-36 (Susan Carter et al. eds., 2006).

  2 John Lewis Gaddis, Surprise, Security, and the American Experience (2004); and Walter McDougall, Promised Land, Crusader State: The American Encounter with the World Since 1776 (1998).

  3 The classic analysis of containment along these lines is John Lewis Gaddis, Strategies of Containment: A Critical Appraisal of Postwar American National Security Policy (1982) (hereinafter "Gaddis, Strategies").

  4 Ibid. at 127-97.

  5 Marc Trachtenberg, A Constructed Peace: The Making of the European Settlement 1945-1963, at 15-41 (1999).

  6 See Michael Hogan, A Cross of Iron: Harry S. Truman and the Origins of the National Security State, 1945-9154 (1998); and Melvyn Leffler, A Preponderance of Power: National Security, the Truman Administration, and the Cold War (1993).