Freedom National: The Destruction of Slavery in the United States, 1861-1865

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Freedom National: The Destruction of Slavery in the United States, 1861-1865 Page 62

by James Oakes


  74 Ibid., pp. 22–23; Chicago Tribune, Dec. 12, 1865.

  Legal scholars disagree among themselves about the legitimacy of the process by which the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Amendments were ratified. See the critique of the process by Bruce Ackerman, We the People, vol. 2: Transformations (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2000), pp. 99–119, 207–234. For a defense, see Akhil Reed Amar, America’s Constitution: A Biography (New York: Random House, 2005), pp. 364–380.

  75 McPherson, ed., Political History of the United States of America, pp. 20, 24.

  76 Ibid., p. 25.

  77 Quoted in Victor B. Howard, Black Liberation in Kentucky: Emancipation and Freedom, 1862–1884 (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1983), p. 74.

  78 Chicago Tribune, Dec. 12, 1865; Manchester Guardian (UK), Jan. 2, 1866.

  79 Louisville Daily Journal, Dec. 6, 1865.

  EPILOGUE: WAS FREEDOM ENOUGH?

  1 Stephen Hahn, A Nation under Our Feet: Black Political Struggles in the Rural South from Slavery to the Great Migration (Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2003), pp. 146–154.

  2 Edward McPherson, ed., The Political History of the United States of America during the Period of Reconstruction (Washington, DC: Philip & Solomons, 1871), pp. 22–23, 25.

  3 Ibid., pp. 24, 29ff.

  4 Ibid., pp. 18, 21.

  5 New York Times, July 17, 1864.

  CREDITS

  INSERT

  Page 1: National Archives and Records Administration.

  Page 2, top left: Brady-Handy Collection, Prints & Photographs Division, Library of Congress, LC-BH82-5159.

  Page 2, top right: The New Haven Museum & Historical Society.

  Page 2, bottom: The Granger Collection, New York.

  Page 3, top left: Prints & Photographs Division, Library of Congress, LC-DIG-cwpb-04894.

  Page 3, top right: Brady-Handy Collection, Prints & Photographs Division, Library of Congress, LC-DIG-cwpbh-03901.

  Page 3, bottom: Prints & Photographs Division, Library of Congress, LC-USZ62-31165.

  Page 4, top left: Brady-Handy Collection, Prints & Photographs Division, Library of Congress, LC-DIG-cwpbh-00210.

  Page 4, top right: Prints & Photographs Division, Library of Congress, LC-USZ62-63460.

  Page 4, bottom left: Prints & Photographs Division, Library of Congress, LC-USZ62-128709.

  Page 4, bottom right: Prints & Photographs Division, Library of Congress, LC-DIG-cwpb-05620.

  Page 5, top left: The Granger Collection, New York.

  Page 5, top right: Prints & Photographs Division, Library of Congress, LC-DIG-ppmsca-26755.

  Page 5, bottom left: Brady-Handy Collection, Prints & Photographs Division, Library of Congress, LC-DIG-cwpbh-00652.

  Page 5, bottom right: The Granger Collection, New York.

  Page 6, top: Graphic Arts Collection, Department of Rare Books and Special Collections, Princeton University Library.

  Page 6, bottom: Yale Collection of American Literature, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Bibliographic Record Number 2111696.

  Page 7, top: National Archives and Records Administration, Still Picture Branch.

  Page 7, bottom: National Archives and Records Administration, photo no. 525135.

  Page 8: Prints & Photographs Division, Library of Congress, LC-DIG-pga-02502.

  Page 9, top: Prints & Photographs Division, Library of Congress, LC-USZ62-130778.

  Page 9, bottom: Prints & Photographs Division, Library of Congress, LC-DIG-pga-03898.

  Page 10: Library of Congress, Rare Book and Special Collections Division, Alfred Whital Stern Collection of Lincolniana.

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  Page 12: National Archives and Records Administration, ARC identifier 1497351.

  Page 13: Prints & Photographs Division, Library of Congress, LC-USZ62-131137.

  Page 14: Prints & Photographs Division, Library of Congress, LC-USZ62-945.

  Page 15: The Granger Collection, New York.

  Page 16: Prints & Photographs Division, Library of Congress, LC-USZ62-127599.

  INDEX

  Page numbers beginning with 495 refer to endnotes.

  abolition:

  alternative scenario for, xxiv

  in Arkansas, 367, 456, 459, 460–61, 469

  Border State advocacy for, 145

  Border State resistance to, 285, 286–87, 288, 290, 291, 297, 470, 485–87

  Caribbean, x, 67

  Civil War’s role in, xiv, xviii, xix, xxi, 285–86, 428

  congressional power over, 28, 32, 37, 54, 229, 230, 268, 270–71, 272, 431, 436–37, 439, 455, 456

  congressional role in, xviii

  consequences of, xxii–xxiii, 491–92

  constitutional obstacles to, xi, 1–8, 12–14; see also federal consensus

  in Delaware, 487

  in 1864 Republican platform, 471

  Emancipation Proclamation’s influence on, 366–67

  emancipation’s distinction from, 349, 400

  factors in, xvii–xix

  federal policies supporting, xi–xiii, xiv, xvii, xviii, xx, xxi–xxii, xxiii, 6, 7–8, 17, 22; see also antislavery movement, political, federal policies of; Republican Party, U.S., antislavery policies of

  historical context of, x

  Hunter’s declarations of, 214–18, 283, 289, 332, 338, 524

  Johnson’s policies on, 483–84

  in Kentucky, 487

  Lincoln’s expectations for, 52–53, 284

  Lincoln’s role in, xvii, xviii

  in Louisiana, 367, 456, 457, 461–63, 469

  in Maryland, 367, 457, 460, 464–67, 469, 477

  in Mississippi, 484, 485

  in Missouri, 367, 460, 468–69, 477, 478, 482

  monetary incentives for, xii; see also slaves, compensation for

  in North, x, 9–12, 169, 278, 297, 500, 501

  northern Democrats’ fears about, 280, 285, 422, 449–50

  political assumptions about, 30–31, 33–34, 52

  racial arguments against, 11, 81, 285, 447, 449–50, 451

  Republican Party’s role in, xiv, xvii, xviii, xix, xx, xxi–xxii

  Seward’s scenarios for, 66–67

  in Tennessee, 367, 467–68, 469, 482

  in Texas, 488

  timetable for, xii

  as Union admission requirement, 257, 299, 305, 392, 453, 455, 456, 457–58, 472, 473, 483

  Union army’s role in, xiv, xviii, xix, 392

  in Washington, D.C., 9, 17, 18, 31, 33, 51, 59, 257, 268, 269–77, 300, 313, 328, 331, 344, 394, 438

  in West Virginia, 257, 295, 304, 328, 331, 367, 550

  see also antislavery movement; slavery; Thirteenth Amendment

  abolition, gradual:

  in Border States, xii, xiii, xiv, 53, 67, 145, 146, 147, 283–88, 289, 290, 291, 292, 298, 305, 315, 330

  colonization proposals for, xii, 277, 305, 315, 387

  compensation for, xii, 11, 284, 285, 286, 290, 305, 315, 386, 465, 485, 501

  containment strategy for, xii, 31, 33, 42, 67, 68, 82, 111, 145, 146, 260, 485

  in District of Columbia proposals, 53, 270, 271, 273

  effects of, 297

  enactment of, 431, 438, 456

  humanity of, 428

  Lincoln’s proposals for, xiii, 53, 191, 270, 271, 283–88, 289, 290, 292, 297, 305, 315, 330, 428, 459–60, 466, 485

  military emancipation’s effect on, xiv, 289, 291–93, 305

  pre–Civil War, 10

  as secession alternative, 49, 67, 71, 73

  Union implementation of, xiii, 111

  West Virginia proposal for, 295, 296, 297, 298, 299, 431, 486

  abolition, state, 431, 456–70

  black soldiers’ role in, xiv

  in Border States, xiii, xiv, 463–67, 477

  duration of, 482

  effectiveness of, 298

  fede
ral pressure toward, xi–xii, xiii, xiv, 190–91; see also containment

  limitations of, 469–70

  Lincoln’s position on, 456, 457–58, 459–60, 461–62, 463, 466, 467

  post–Civil War, xiv; see also Thirteenth Amendment

  Adams, Charles Francis, 65

  Adams, John Quincy, 19–20, 35–39, 40, 41, 68, 194, 240, 347, 348

  African Americans:

  black enlistment argument of, 376

  civic equality fight of, 359–60, 491–92

  Emancipation Proclamation reaction of, 346, 359

  Lincoln’s meeting with, 308–10

  passport issuance for, 264, 265

  Thirteenth Amendment support by, 479

  Age of Emancipation, x, xxiv

  Alabama:

  Black Codes in, 490

  black enlistment in, 388

  Kentucky fugitive slaves from, 423

  secession of, 61, 64

  Thirteenth Amendment ratification by, 484, 490

  Albany Argus, 286

  Alexander, Louisa, 406

  American Anti-Slavery Society, 3

  American Colonization Society (ACS), 278

  American Revolution, 36, 38, 261, 501

  American Slavery as It Is (Weld), 271

  Amistad, 34–35, 36, 41, 194, 347, 511

  Ammen, Daniel, 521n

  Anderson, Robert, 160, 161, 162

  Andrew, John, 92, 185–86, 379

  Antietam, 302, 313, 314, 393

  antislavery constitutionalism:

  core precepts of, 6–7, 347–48, 349–50

  District of Columbia test of, 270–71, 272–73

  evolution of, 4–5, 13–14, 16–34, 35–41

  literature of, 347

  mainstreaming of, 21, 25, 29, 40, 46, 74, 136

  Northwest Ordinance’s importance to, 441

  property argument of, 6, 9, 13–14, 16–22, 23–24, 27, 35, 44, 48, 102, 120, 233, 397

  radical positions in, 21, 27–28, 33, 39, 41, 347, 348, 432, 454

  scenarios of, 7–8, 33–34, 42, 68; see also containment; emancipation, military

  Thirteenth Amendment as culmination of, 442

  see also antislavery movement, political

  antislavery movement:

  British ties to, 501

  Christian element of, 307

  colonization position of, 278

  constitutional amendment proposal by, 437

  differences within, xxi, xxii

  District of Columbia abolition position of, 9, 17, 18, 27, 31, 33, 270

  early policies of, 9–10, 11–12

  Emancipation Proclamation’s support in, 346

  Haiti support in, 264

  ideological origins of, xxiii

  international context of, xvii

  Lincoln’s appeals from, 79–80, 307–8, 311

  Lincoln’s criticism by, xxi, 163–65, 217, 283, 348

  postwar divisions within, 459, 461, 462, 465

  Preliminary Proclamation’s support by, 307–13, 316–17, 329–30, 333–34

  Sea Islands experiment of, 202–7, 214, 327

  self-emancipation’s definition by, 194–95, 522

  antislavery movement, political:

  Adams’s influence on, 39, 41

  Civil War’s origins in, xv, xvi–xvii, xx, xxii, xxiii, 108, 130, 328, 331, 346, 446, 447, 453

  colonization position of, 277

  conservative influences on, 40–41

  constitutional assumptions of, xi, xxiii, 1–2, 3–6, 12–14, 22, 134, 438, 498; see also federal consensus

  constitutional obstacles to, xi, 1–8

  divisions within, 26–27

  emergence of, xv, xvi, xviii–xix, xxiii, 1–48

  federal policies of, ix, xi–xii, 6, 7–8, 12–13, 17, 22, 26, 27, 28, 30, 31–34, 82, 300; see also containment

  military scenario of, xii, 82; see also emancipation, military

  political parties of, 26–29

  Republican Party involvement in, xv, xvi, xvii

  revisionist theories about, xv

  slavery’s weakness presumed by, x, 30–31, 33–34, 145, 196, 485

  see also antislavery constitutionalism; Republican Party, U.S.

  antislavery movement, radical:

  Adams’s alignment with, 36, 39, 41, 240

  black enlistment support by, 376

  colonization position of, 277, 278

  constitutional interpretation of, 5, 6, 21, 24–26, 27–28, 33, 347, 348, 432, 454, 499, 549

  containment strategy of, 26, 33, 40, 256–57, 258

  Lincoln’s relationship with, xxi, 79–80, 283, 289

  postwar resurgence of, 459, 461, 462, 465, 469, 478

  racial discussion in, 497

  Appomattox, 482

  Arkansas:

  abolition in, 367, 456, 459, 460–61, 469

  loyalty oaths in, 460

  military emancipation in, 363

  Missouri guerilla warfare from, 478

  secession of, 79

  army, Confederate:

  Antietam loss of, 302, 314

  Arkansas expulsion of, 460

  Border State recruitment by, 147

  contraband policy response of, 107

  defeat of, 482

  1864 defeats of, 475

  enlistment in, 88

  first Bull Run victory of, 123

  Frémont’s Missouri policy toward, 157, 158

  Gettysburg defeat of, 395, 427

  Kentucky’s invasion by, 148, 159–63, 519

  Mississippi Valley losses of, 219

  Missouri battles of, 148

  Missouri’s expulsion of, 478

  North’s invasion by, 314, 395

  runaway slaves’ hindrance by, 412

  second Bull Run victory of, 313–14

  slaves’ intelligence reports to, 181

  Tennessee expulsion of, 467

  western defeat of, 394

  army, Union:

  abolition role of, xiv, xviii, xix, 392

  Antietam victory of, 302, 314, 393

  articles of war of, 210, 316, 350–52

  black enlistment in, xiv, xvii, 132, 239, 341, 344, 360–62, 374, 376–84, 385–88, 391, 394, 399, 411, 414–16, 418, 420, 421, 427–28, 435, 451, 457, 463, 475, 542, 543; see also black soldiers

  black soldiers’ treatment in, 379–80, 415, 473

  Border State fugitive slave policy of, 104, 146–47, 166–89, 190–91, 193, 319

  Border State presence of, 90, 104, 146, 148, 149, 152, 153, 156, 160, 161, 162, 175, 387

  Confederacy’s occupation by, 87, 94, 406, 407, 410, 412

  Department of the South of, 213

  Department of the West of, 104, 152, 155, 181, 319, 321, 371, 372

  District of Columbia’s protection by, 90, 271

  1863 victories of, 394–95, 427

  1864 victories of, 475

  Emancipation Proclamation’s implementation by, 350–52

  enticement agents in, 371–72, 381–84, 474

  enticement ban on, 100, 139, 180, 193–94, 198, 203, 220, 320, 368, 464

  enticement by, xiv, 343, 344, 365–66, 372–76, 381–84, 385, 387, 391, 394, 401, 402, 414, 415, 427, 464, 474

  first Bull Run defeat of, 107, 123–24, 125

  First Confiscation Act’s application by, 119, 139–40, 142–43, 175–79, 182–83

  forced expulsions by, 281

  free blacks’ protection by, 183, 186, 343, 344; see also contraband camps

  fugitive slave clause enforcement role of, 90, 113, 141, 143, 146–47, 166, 172, 173, 174–75, 177, 179–81, 186, 187–89, 191, 196, 210, 238, 251, 257, 259, 275–76, 290, 316, 319, 323, 331, 434

  fugitive slave policy disagreement within, 104, 111–12, 113, 167, 168, 172, 178–79, 209–13, 222–23, 245–49, 318–27, 366, 486–87

  fugitive slave policy of, 89–90, 93, 96, 97, 98–99, 172–73, 174, 190–91, 193–94, 196, 350, 351, 352; see also contraband policy

  General O
rders No. 3 of, 181–85, 186, 187, 189, 190, 318–19, 520, 535

  Gettysburg victory of, 395

  “hard war” policies of, 372–73

  Kentucky troops in, 366, 418, 433, 486–87

  in Maryland abolition voting, 465

  military setbacks of, 302, 306, 313–14, 330, 393, 534

  Mississippi Valley advances of, 218–19, 224, 246, 318, 387, 413, 414

  New Orleans occupation by, 219–20, 244

  Preliminary Proclamation’s implementation by, 317–18, 323–28

  Sea Islands occupation by, 142, 197

  second Bull Run defeat of, 313–14

  Second Confiscation Act’s implementation by, 248, 249, 251–54, 317, 321–23, 324

  slave conscription by, 361, 366, 384–85, 386, 391, 402, 433, 435, 463–64

  slave escapes to, xix, 7, 25, 87, 89–90, 93, 95–96, 97–99; see also contraband policy

  slave exclusion orders in, 111, 168, 171, 173, 177–79, 181–82, 183, 184, 185, 187, 212, 213, 246, 319, 323, 520, 535

  slaveholders’ fears about, 88

  slaveholders’ interactions with, 169–70, 181, 183–84, 189, 190, 365–66

  slave relocation by, 281, 420

  slaves’ collusion with, xix, 156, 168–69, 170–71, 178, 180, 244–45, 320

  slaves’ employment by, 98, 100, 141, 168, 171, 187, 198, 201, 205, 210, 221–22, 235, 239, 246, 254, 321, 322, 324, 325, 344, 368, 374–75, 377–78, 421, 427; see also free labor

  slaves’ intelligence reports on, 181

  slaves’ intelligence reports to, 168, 179, 213, 520

  victory of, 482

  Arnold, Isaac, ix, 265–66, 269, 434, 549

  Articles of Confederation, 266, 440

  Ashley, James M., 243, 273, 439, 477, 478, 479, 550

  Atlanta, Ga., 475

  Atlantic Monthly, 140, 333

  attainder, constitutional ban on, 158–59, 232, 234–35, 526

  Aves, Thomas, 14

  Ayers, James, 381–84, 415

  Bahamas, 22, 261

  Baker, Edward, 133

  Baker, Everard Green, 482

  Baker, Frank, 95

  Baltimore, Md., secessionist rioting in, 90, 149

  Banks, Nathaniel, 186, 462

  Bannan, Benjamin, 369–70

  Barbados, abolition in, x

  Bates, Edward, 71, 152, 173, 279, 299, 306, 533

  citizenship ruling by, 357–58, 359, 360, 361, 390–91, 426

  Beauregard, Pierre, 123

  Beecher, Henry Ward, 54

  Bell, John, 518

  Benton, Thomas Hart, 150, 153

  Berrey, Archibald, 404

 

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