by James Oakes
74 Ibid., pp. 22–23; Chicago Tribune, Dec. 12, 1865.
Legal scholars disagree among themselves about the legitimacy of the process by which the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Amendments were ratified. See the critique of the process by Bruce Ackerman, We the People, vol. 2: Transformations (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2000), pp. 99–119, 207–234. For a defense, see Akhil Reed Amar, America’s Constitution: A Biography (New York: Random House, 2005), pp. 364–380.
75 McPherson, ed., Political History of the United States of America, pp. 20, 24.
76 Ibid., p. 25.
77 Quoted in Victor B. Howard, Black Liberation in Kentucky: Emancipation and Freedom, 1862–1884 (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1983), p. 74.
78 Chicago Tribune, Dec. 12, 1865; Manchester Guardian (UK), Jan. 2, 1866.
79 Louisville Daily Journal, Dec. 6, 1865.
EPILOGUE: WAS FREEDOM ENOUGH?
1 Stephen Hahn, A Nation under Our Feet: Black Political Struggles in the Rural South from Slavery to the Great Migration (Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2003), pp. 146–154.
2 Edward McPherson, ed., The Political History of the United States of America during the Period of Reconstruction (Washington, DC: Philip & Solomons, 1871), pp. 22–23, 25.
3 Ibid., pp. 24, 29ff.
4 Ibid., pp. 18, 21.
5 New York Times, July 17, 1864.
CREDITS
INSERT
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INDEX
Page numbers beginning with 495 refer to endnotes.
abolition:
alternative scenario for, xxiv
in Arkansas, 367, 456, 459, 460–61, 469
Border State advocacy for, 145
Border State resistance to, 285, 286–87, 288, 290, 291, 297, 470, 485–87
Caribbean, x, 67
Civil War’s role in, xiv, xviii, xix, xxi, 285–86, 428
congressional power over, 28, 32, 37, 54, 229, 230, 268, 270–71, 272, 431, 436–37, 439, 455, 456
congressional role in, xviii
consequences of, xxii–xxiii, 491–92
constitutional obstacles to, xi, 1–8, 12–14; see also federal consensus
in Delaware, 487
in 1864 Republican platform, 471
Emancipation Proclamation’s influence on, 366–67
emancipation’s distinction from, 349, 400
factors in, xvii–xix
federal policies supporting, xi–xiii, xiv, xvii, xviii, xx, xxi–xxii, xxiii, 6, 7–8, 17, 22; see also antislavery movement, political, federal policies of; Republican Party, U.S., antislavery policies of
historical context of, x
Hunter’s declarations of, 214–18, 283, 289, 332, 338, 524
Johnson’s policies on, 483–84
in Kentucky, 487
Lincoln’s expectations for, 52–53, 284
Lincoln’s role in, xvii, xviii
in Louisiana, 367, 456, 457, 461–63, 469
in Maryland, 367, 457, 460, 464–67, 469, 477
in Mississippi, 484, 485
in Missouri, 367, 460, 468–69, 477, 478, 482
monetary incentives for, xii; see also slaves, compensation for
in North, x, 9–12, 169, 278, 297, 500, 501
northern Democrats’ fears about, 280, 285, 422, 449–50
political assumptions about, 30–31, 33–34, 52
racial arguments against, 11, 81, 285, 447, 449–50, 451
Republican Party’s role in, xiv, xvii, xviii, xix, xx, xxi–xxii
Seward’s scenarios for, 66–67
in Tennessee, 367, 467–68, 469, 482
in Texas, 488
timetable for, xii
as Union admission requirement, 257, 299, 305, 392, 453, 455, 456, 457–58, 472, 473, 483
Union army’s role in, xiv, xviii, xix, 392
in Washington, D.C., 9, 17, 18, 31, 33, 51, 59, 257, 268, 269–77, 300, 313, 328, 331, 344, 394, 438
in West Virginia, 257, 295, 304, 328, 331, 367, 550
see also antislavery movement; slavery; Thirteenth Amendment
abolition, gradual:
in Border States, xii, xiii, xiv, 53, 67, 145, 146, 147, 283–88, 289, 290, 291, 292, 298, 305, 315, 330
colonization proposals for, xii, 277, 305, 315, 387
compensation for, xii, 11, 284, 285, 286, 290, 305, 315, 386, 465, 485, 501
containment strategy for, xii, 31, 33, 42, 67, 68, 82, 111, 145, 146, 260, 485
in District of Columbia proposals, 53, 270, 271, 273
effects of, 297
enactment of, 431, 438, 456
humanity of, 428
Lincoln’s proposals for, xiii, 53, 191, 270, 271, 283–88, 289, 290, 292, 297, 305, 315, 330, 428, 459–60, 466, 485
military emancipation’s effect on, xiv, 289, 291–93, 305
pre–Civil War, 10
as secession alternative, 49, 67, 71, 73
Union implementation of, xiii, 111
West Virginia proposal for, 295, 296, 297, 298, 299, 431, 486
abolition, state, 431, 456–70
black soldiers’ role in, xiv
in Border States, xiii, xiv, 463–67, 477
duration of, 482
effectiveness of, 298
fede
ral pressure toward, xi–xii, xiii, xiv, 190–91; see also containment
limitations of, 469–70
Lincoln’s position on, 456, 457–58, 459–60, 461–62, 463, 466, 467
post–Civil War, xiv; see also Thirteenth Amendment
Adams, Charles Francis, 65
Adams, John Quincy, 19–20, 35–39, 40, 41, 68, 194, 240, 347, 348
African Americans:
black enlistment argument of, 376
civic equality fight of, 359–60, 491–92
Emancipation Proclamation reaction of, 346, 359
Lincoln’s meeting with, 308–10
passport issuance for, 264, 265
Thirteenth Amendment support by, 479
Age of Emancipation, x, xxiv
Alabama:
Black Codes in, 490
black enlistment in, 388
Kentucky fugitive slaves from, 423
secession of, 61, 64
Thirteenth Amendment ratification by, 484, 490
Albany Argus, 286
Alexander, Louisa, 406
American Anti-Slavery Society, 3
American Colonization Society (ACS), 278
American Revolution, 36, 38, 261, 501
American Slavery as It Is (Weld), 271
Amistad, 34–35, 36, 41, 194, 347, 511
Ammen, Daniel, 521n
Anderson, Robert, 160, 161, 162
Andrew, John, 92, 185–86, 379
Antietam, 302, 313, 314, 393
antislavery constitutionalism:
core precepts of, 6–7, 347–48, 349–50
District of Columbia test of, 270–71, 272–73
evolution of, 4–5, 13–14, 16–34, 35–41
literature of, 347
mainstreaming of, 21, 25, 29, 40, 46, 74, 136
Northwest Ordinance’s importance to, 441
property argument of, 6, 9, 13–14, 16–22, 23–24, 27, 35, 44, 48, 102, 120, 233, 397
radical positions in, 21, 27–28, 33, 39, 41, 347, 348, 432, 454
scenarios of, 7–8, 33–34, 42, 68; see also containment; emancipation, military
Thirteenth Amendment as culmination of, 442
see also antislavery movement, political
antislavery movement:
British ties to, 501
Christian element of, 307
colonization position of, 278
constitutional amendment proposal by, 437
differences within, xxi, xxii
District of Columbia abolition position of, 9, 17, 18, 27, 31, 33, 270
early policies of, 9–10, 11–12
Emancipation Proclamation’s support in, 346
Haiti support in, 264
ideological origins of, xxiii
international context of, xvii
Lincoln’s appeals from, 79–80, 307–8, 311
Lincoln’s criticism by, xxi, 163–65, 217, 283, 348
postwar divisions within, 459, 461, 462, 465
Preliminary Proclamation’s support by, 307–13, 316–17, 329–30, 333–34
Sea Islands experiment of, 202–7, 214, 327
self-emancipation’s definition by, 194–95, 522
antislavery movement, political:
Adams’s influence on, 39, 41
Civil War’s origins in, xv, xvi–xvii, xx, xxii, xxiii, 108, 130, 328, 331, 346, 446, 447, 453
colonization position of, 277
conservative influences on, 40–41
constitutional assumptions of, xi, xxiii, 1–2, 3–6, 12–14, 22, 134, 438, 498; see also federal consensus
constitutional obstacles to, xi, 1–8
divisions within, 26–27
emergence of, xv, xvi, xviii–xix, xxiii, 1–48
federal policies of, ix, xi–xii, 6, 7–8, 12–13, 17, 22, 26, 27, 28, 30, 31–34, 82, 300; see also containment
military scenario of, xii, 82; see also emancipation, military
political parties of, 26–29
Republican Party involvement in, xv, xvi, xvii
revisionist theories about, xv
slavery’s weakness presumed by, x, 30–31, 33–34, 145, 196, 485
see also antislavery constitutionalism; Republican Party, U.S.
antislavery movement, radical:
Adams’s alignment with, 36, 39, 41, 240
black enlistment support by, 376
colonization position of, 277, 278
constitutional interpretation of, 5, 6, 21, 24–26, 27–28, 33, 347, 348, 432, 454, 499, 549
containment strategy of, 26, 33, 40, 256–57, 258
Lincoln’s relationship with, xxi, 79–80, 283, 289
postwar resurgence of, 459, 461, 462, 465, 469, 478
racial discussion in, 497
Appomattox, 482
Arkansas:
abolition in, 367, 456, 459, 460–61, 469
loyalty oaths in, 460
military emancipation in, 363
Missouri guerilla warfare from, 478
secession of, 79
army, Confederate:
Antietam loss of, 302, 314
Arkansas expulsion of, 460
Border State recruitment by, 147
contraband policy response of, 107
defeat of, 482
1864 defeats of, 475
enlistment in, 88
first Bull Run victory of, 123
Frémont’s Missouri policy toward, 157, 158
Gettysburg defeat of, 395, 427
Kentucky’s invasion by, 148, 159–63, 519
Mississippi Valley losses of, 219
Missouri battles of, 148
Missouri’s expulsion of, 478
North’s invasion by, 314, 395
runaway slaves’ hindrance by, 412
second Bull Run victory of, 313–14
slaves’ intelligence reports to, 181
Tennessee expulsion of, 467
western defeat of, 394
army, Union:
abolition role of, xiv, xviii, xix, 392
Antietam victory of, 302, 314, 393
articles of war of, 210, 316, 350–52
black enlistment in, xiv, xvii, 132, 239, 341, 344, 360–62, 374, 376–84, 385–88, 391, 394, 399, 411, 414–16, 418, 420, 421, 427–28, 435, 451, 457, 463, 475, 542, 543; see also black soldiers
black soldiers’ treatment in, 379–80, 415, 473
Border State fugitive slave policy of, 104, 146–47, 166–89, 190–91, 193, 319
Border State presence of, 90, 104, 146, 148, 149, 152, 153, 156, 160, 161, 162, 175, 387
Confederacy’s occupation by, 87, 94, 406, 407, 410, 412
Department of the South of, 213
Department of the West of, 104, 152, 155, 181, 319, 321, 371, 372
District of Columbia’s protection by, 90, 271
1863 victories of, 394–95, 427
1864 victories of, 475
Emancipation Proclamation’s implementation by, 350–52
enticement agents in, 371–72, 381–84, 474
enticement ban on, 100, 139, 180, 193–94, 198, 203, 220, 320, 368, 464
enticement by, xiv, 343, 344, 365–66, 372–76, 381–84, 385, 387, 391, 394, 401, 402, 414, 415, 427, 464, 474
first Bull Run defeat of, 107, 123–24, 125
First Confiscation Act’s application by, 119, 139–40, 142–43, 175–79, 182–83
forced expulsions by, 281
free blacks’ protection by, 183, 186, 343, 344; see also contraband camps
fugitive slave clause enforcement role of, 90, 113, 141, 143, 146–47, 166, 172, 173, 174–75, 177, 179–81, 186, 187–89, 191, 196, 210, 238, 251, 257, 259, 275–76, 290, 316, 319, 323, 331, 434
fugitive slave policy disagreement within, 104, 111–12, 113, 167, 168, 172, 178–79, 209–13, 222–23, 245–49, 318–27, 366, 486–87
fugitive slave policy of, 89–90, 93, 96, 97, 98–99, 172–73, 174, 190–91, 193–94, 196, 350, 351, 352; see also contraband policy
General O
rders No. 3 of, 181–85, 186, 187, 189, 190, 318–19, 520, 535
Gettysburg victory of, 395
“hard war” policies of, 372–73
Kentucky troops in, 366, 418, 433, 486–87
in Maryland abolition voting, 465
military setbacks of, 302, 306, 313–14, 330, 393, 534
Mississippi Valley advances of, 218–19, 224, 246, 318, 387, 413, 414
New Orleans occupation by, 219–20, 244
Preliminary Proclamation’s implementation by, 317–18, 323–28
Sea Islands occupation by, 142, 197
second Bull Run defeat of, 313–14
Second Confiscation Act’s implementation by, 248, 249, 251–54, 317, 321–23, 324
slave conscription by, 361, 366, 384–85, 386, 391, 402, 433, 435, 463–64
slave escapes to, xix, 7, 25, 87, 89–90, 93, 95–96, 97–99; see also contraband policy
slave exclusion orders in, 111, 168, 171, 173, 177–79, 181–82, 183, 184, 185, 187, 212, 213, 246, 319, 323, 520, 535
slaveholders’ fears about, 88
slaveholders’ interactions with, 169–70, 181, 183–84, 189, 190, 365–66
slave relocation by, 281, 420
slaves’ collusion with, xix, 156, 168–69, 170–71, 178, 180, 244–45, 320
slaves’ employment by, 98, 100, 141, 168, 171, 187, 198, 201, 205, 210, 221–22, 235, 239, 246, 254, 321, 322, 324, 325, 344, 368, 374–75, 377–78, 421, 427; see also free labor
slaves’ intelligence reports on, 181
slaves’ intelligence reports to, 168, 179, 213, 520
victory of, 482
Arnold, Isaac, ix, 265–66, 269, 434, 549
Articles of Confederation, 266, 440
Ashley, James M., 243, 273, 439, 477, 478, 479, 550
Atlanta, Ga., 475
Atlantic Monthly, 140, 333
attainder, constitutional ban on, 158–59, 232, 234–35, 526
Aves, Thomas, 14
Ayers, James, 381–84, 415
Bahamas, 22, 261
Baker, Edward, 133
Baker, Everard Green, 482
Baker, Frank, 95
Baltimore, Md., secessionist rioting in, 90, 149
Banks, Nathaniel, 186, 462
Bannan, Benjamin, 369–70
Barbados, abolition in, x
Bates, Edward, 71, 152, 173, 279, 299, 306, 533
citizenship ruling by, 357–58, 359, 360, 361, 390–91, 426
Beauregard, Pierre, 123
Beecher, Henry Ward, 54
Bell, John, 518
Benton, Thomas Hart, 150, 153
Berrey, Archibald, 404