The Vaccine Race
Page 61
etymology, 135
Gregg and link between fetal damage and, 133–35, 136–38, 140, 148–49n
lab isolation of virus, 140, 145–47
MacConnell case, 337–339
symptoms, 134–35
Wenzler case, 181–88
rubella epidemics, 5, 191, 345–46
in Australia, 133–35, 136–38
in Britain, 138–41, 139n, 146–47
in Taiwan, 230–31
in U.S., 156–61
rubella vaccines, 8, 345–46. See also specific vaccines
Rubelogen, 237
Rutter, William J., 312
RVIMI, 155–56
Sabin, Albert, 23–24
background of, 34
Hayflick support of, 216, 294
NIH Conference, 235–36
polio vaccine, 34–36, 37, 98–99, 102–3, 216, 249, 251–52
St. Vincent’s Home for Children, 118, 175–76, 179–80, 189–93, 197–98, 205, 226–28, 359
St. Vincent’s Hospital for Women and Children, 117–19, 175–76, 359
Saksela, Eero, 90–91, 354
Salk, Jonas, 34–35, 36, 68, 95, 273
Salk polio vaccine, 95–101
Cutter incident, 2, 95–96, 100, 121
SV40 virus and, 2, 97, 98, 100–101, 105–6, 108–9, 110–11, 125
San Francisco Chronicle, 330
Sanger, Frederick, 326
Sanofi Pasteur, 305, 344, 349, 359
Schluederberg, Ann, 256
Schmaljohn, Alan, 253
school prayer, 90
Schriver, James W., 280–87, 302, 360
background of, 280
investigation of, 280–87, 296
report, 288–92, 296–97
retirement of, 317–18, 319
Schumacher, Jim, 99
Schwartz, Harry, 293
Schwartz, John J., 284, 293
Schweiker, Richard, 245
Science, 25, 71, 126, 127, 155, 177, 202, 246, 273–74, 290–91, 293, 296, 301, 318, 320, 322, 330, 342
Wade article, 291–92, 296, 308, 309
Sebrell, William, 96
Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), 334
Selective Service Act of 1948, 143
Senate Committee on Government Operations, 247–50
SE polyoma virus, 46, 96
“Serial Cultivation of Human Diploid Cell Strains, The” (Hayflick and Moorhead), 3, 72–78, 83, 89–90, 126, 152, 177, 243, 273, 320
Sever, John, 178, 205
Shannon, James, 121, 126
Shannon, John E., 219, 220, 223, 287
Sharp & Dohme, 26
Shaw, Alan, 341, 349
Shay, Jerry, 331
Shein, Harvey, 111
Sidney Farber Cancer Institute, 326
Siena, James, 266
Silent Spring (Carson), 90
Silverman, Jacob, 15–16
Silverman, Norman, 17–18
simian vacuolating virus 40. See SV40 virus
simian viruses, 96–101
Skloot, Rebecca, 41n
Skylab, 268–70
Sloan Kettering Institute for Cancer Research, 70, 195, 318
Smadel, Joseph, 100, 108, 110–11, 121, 126
smallpox vaccine, 78–79n, 102
Smith, James R., 322
Smith, Kline & French, 206, 226, 228–29. See also Cendehill vaccine
Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children, 37
Southam, Chester, 70–71, 195
Sprick, Gary, 172–73
Stanbridge, Eric, 241
Stanford Daily, 292, 293
Stanford University, 6, 216, 239–41
Hayflick at, 216, 223–24, 238–45, 265, 271–73
resignation, 292–94
Office of Technology Licensing, 276–77
Stanford University School of Medicine, 276–77, 284
Staphylococcus, 20
State University of New York, 142
Steele, James H., 170
Stern, Art, 156
Stern, Richard, 184–85
Stevenson, Forrest, Jr., 265–68, 270
Stevenson, Robert, 92–93
Stewart, Sarah, 46, 96
Stinebring, Warren, 27
Stokes, Emelen, 107
Stokes, Joseph, 37, 106–7
Strangers at the Bedside (Rothman), 123–24
Streptococcus pyogenes, 20
streptomycin, 20
sulfa, 20
Sullivan, Anne, 188
Supreme Court, U.S.
Diamond v. Chakrabarty, 314–15
Roe v. Wade, 50, 176, 265, 267, 270
school prayer, 90
SV40 virus, 2, 97–106, 108–11, 125, 126, 247–49, 356–57
Swanson, Robert, 277
Swedish Academy of Sciences, 87
Swedish Medical Association, 87–88
Swedish Red Cross, 86
Sweet, Ben, 99–100, 101
Szostak, Jack, 326–27, 332
Takahashi, Michiaki, 307–8, 309, 343
Tasaka, Sadataka, 178
telomeres, 324–32
Temple University, 17
Terlep, Vincent, 317–18
Tetrahymena, 326–29
tetralogy of Fallot, 146, 338
Teva Pharmaceuticals, 337, 349
thalidomide, 90, 148, 151, 190
Theiler, Max, 22
therapeutic abortions, 24, 50–51
Thomas, Lewis, 231, 318
Thomas Jefferson University, 358
Tillgren, Josua, 81
Time (magazine), 45–46, 58, 96
Tishler, Max, 210
tissue culture, 22, 23, 25–26, 27
Tissue Culture Association, 283
Tjio, Joe Hin, 46, 47–48, 49, 76
Toms River Chemical, 182
Toms River Community Hospital, 183
Toms River High School, 182
Torlak Institute, 199
Toxoplasma gondii, 285
trypsin, 42, 54, 55, 168
TTAGGG, 328–29
tuberculosis, 8, 22, 107, 193
Turner, James S., 247–48
Tuskegee Syphilis Study, 7, 7n, 351
ultraviolet light (UV), 40–41, 92
University of Arkansas School of Medicine, 191
University of California, Berkeley, 41, 106, 254, 326, 327–28
University of California, San Diego, 312
University of Cincinnati, 34, 95
University of Copenhagen, 45
University of Florida, 317, 355, 357
University of Hawaii, 254
University of Liverpool, 234
University of Oregon, 280
University of Pennsylvania (Penn), 32, 33
Hayflick at, 17–18, 19, 22–23, 26, 27, 29
University of Sydney, 133
University of Texas Medical Branch, 29–30
University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 329, 331
University of Toronto, 273
University of Vermont, 216
University of Washington, 42
university patents, 312–17
Vaccination Assistance Act of 1962, 68
Vaccine Development Branch, 205, 230
vaccines. See also specific vaccines
contamination, 2, 40–41, 91–92, 289–90, 310
opposition by abortion opponents, 265–70
Vaheri, Antti, 155
vampire bats, 33–34, 164
varicella zoster virus (VZV), 69, 307, 308, 309, 343
Vatican,
335, 339–40
Vaughan, Roger, 32, 38, 242
Veale, Henry, 135
venture capital, 273, 277, 312
Verne, Jules, 57
Victory Laboratories, 17–18
Vinnedge, Debi, 333–35, 339–40, 353
virology, 20–23, 25–26
“virus,” 20
Virus and the Vaccine, The (Bookchin and Schumacher), 99, 249, 250–51
virus “particles,” 21
W. Alton Jones Cell Science Center, 322
Wade, Nicholas, 281, 288, 291–92, 296, 309
walking pneumonia, 67, 215, 354
Wall Street Journal, 170, 337
Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, 140, 154, 208, 256
walvax-2, 353
Warsaw Conservatory of Music, 31
Warsaw University Medical School, 31
Watson, James, 44, 324, 325
Webster, William S., 151
Wecker, Eberhard, 40
Weibel, Robert, 178, 260
Weizmann Institute of Science, 342
Welch, William, 75
Weller, Thomas, 23, 24–26, 140, 143, 145
Wenzler, Leonard, 187
Wenzler, Mary, 181–88
Wenzler, Stephen Joseph, III, 181–88
Wenzler, Stephen Joseph, IV, 183–88, 338, 360
Wharton School of Business, 17
Whitney, Ronald G., 322
whooping cough, 8, 22, 94
WIHL cells, 56, 59–62
Wiktor, Tadeusz “Tad,” 168, 173–74, 213, 217, 222, 303–4, 344, 349
Willowbrook State School for the Retarded, 195
Wilson, John Rowan, 31
WISH cells, 42–43
Wistar, Caspar, 27–28
Wistar, Isaac, 28, 39
Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology, 27–29
finances, 39, 218, 222–23, 358
Koprowski at, 31–33, 38–43, 53, 55–56, 151–52
Plotkin at, 141, 143–44, 151–52
rabies vaccine, 173–74, 303
renovations, 39, 218
WI-38 cells and, 213–23, 241–42, 244–45
February follow-up, 220–21, 243
January agreement, 219–20, 241–42, 243, 272, 286
ownership issues, 6, 216–17, 219–23, 241–42, 286–87, 295
Wistar rats, 27, 29
WI-1 cells, 59–62, 63, 65, 104, 104n, 107–8
WI-2 cells, 59–60
WI-3 cells, 60–62
WI-25 cells, 65, 66, 70
WI-26 cells, 83–85, 90, 127
WI-27 cells, 84–85
WI-38 cells, 4–7, 88–93, 213–23, 341–43
abortion opponents and, 265–70
aging research and, 321–32, 341–42
ATCC transfer, 219–21, 223, 242, 272, 310, 347
Hayflick and January agreement, 219–20, 241–42, 243, 272, 286
Hayflick and February follow-up, 220–21, 243
Hayflick and ownership issues, 6, 216–17, 219–23, 241–42, 286–87, 295
Hayflick launch, 85, 88–93, 120–21
Hayflick’s flight with, 6, 223–24, 241
Hayflick’s inventory of, 310–11
Hayflick’s lawsuit, 296–97, 301, 312, 317–19
Hayflick’s rebuttal to Schriver, 296–300
Hayflick’s sale of, 217, 271–72, 273, 274–76, 278–80, 283–84, 288–89
licensing abroad, 128–29, 213–15
Mrs. X and compensation issue, 349–50
NASA Experiment Number SO15, 268–70
NIH and Schriver investigation, 280–87, 296
NIH and Schriver report, 288–92, 296–97
rabies vaccine, 167–69, 173, 302–6
rubella vaccine, 4–7, 155–56, 163, 234–37, 309–10, 347–49
Wade article, 291–92, 296, 308, 309
WHO study, 127–28
“Women, the Bible and Abortion” (Stevenson), 265–66
Women’s Clinic (Stockholm), 85–86
Wood, Adam, 335–36
Workman, William, 96, 125
World Health Organization (WHO), 284
Hayflick’s human diploid cells, 73, 91, 117, 127–28
polio vaccine, 103, 105, 152, 252
rabies, 164, 302
WI-38 cells, 213, 348, 348n
World War I, 14, 23, 33
World War II, 23, 51, 122, 145
medical experiments, 7–8, 123–24
Wright, Woodring “Woody,” 241, 322–23, 323n, 329, 331
Wyeth Laboratories, 223, 245, 344
adenovirus vaccine, 217, 245, 247, 309, 336–37
polio vaccine, 251
rabies vaccine, 303–6, 309
Wyvac, 305, 306
Yale Medical School, 253–54
yellow fever, 21, 22
yellow fever vaccine, 22, 33
hepatitis epidemic of 1942, 2, 122, 125
Zeiss Jena, 65
Zhang, Rugang, 341–42
Zika virus, 8
Zimmerman, Lamar T., 49
Zitcer, Elsa, 41
* A striking exception is the Tuskegee Syphilis Study, in which U.S. government researchers purposely left syphilis untreated in 399 poor, illiterate African Americans. That notorious study began in 1932.
* These cells, obtained without her knowledge in 1951 from the lethal cervical cancer of a thirty-one-year-old African American woman named Henrietta Lacks, have since been made famous by Rebecca Skloot’s 2010 book, The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks.
* Some of these dozens of cell lines were among those later shown by geneticist Stanley Gartler at the University of Washington to be contaminated with cancerous HeLa cells; others were also likely HeLa contaminated.
* Fifty years of study have since made it clear that the process through which a cell becomes cancerous is complicated and involves many steps; it isn’t like flipping an on/off switch. Nor are all cells clearly in one camp or the other. For instance, some cells have aberrant numbers of chromosomes and multiply indefinitely in the lab but have not tipped into the uncontrolled growth that is cancer.
* The vaccine against smallpox, then a routine childhood vaccination, was also crudely made, by harvesting virus from the scarred skin of calves, sheep, or buffalo that had been infected with a related virus called vaccinia. Vaccinia was one of the many viruses that could invade Hayflick’s human diploid cells. But interest in smallpox vaccination was on the wane: the last case of smallpox in the United States had been reported in 1949, and routine childhood vaccination against smallpox would be dropped in the United States in 1971. The last naturally occurring case of the disease anywhere was reported in 1977.
* “Primary” means that the kidney cells were used once and then dispensed with, rather than multiplying through many generations in lab dishes, as Hayflick’s human fetal cells did.
* For simplicity this book will refer to “polio vaccine virus.” However, Hayflick used a Koprowski polio vaccine virus called CHAT, which is a type I polio virus. Of the three polio virus types, type I causes the most disease. However, commercially marketed polio vaccines protect against all three types: I, II, and III. For an explanation of the distinctions and their discovery, see David M. Oshinsky, Polio: An American Story (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 117–21.
* Today, under rules first put in place by the United States in 1978, extra protections pertain to prisoners in human experiments funded by the government. For instance, the ethics boards that approve human trials must include a prisoner or a prisoner representative if prisoners are to be subjects in a study. The prisoners’ participation in a trial, or their decision not to participate, may not be allowed
to affect parole decisions. And the types of study allowed must pertain to prisoners particularly—for example, they may be studies of diseases that occur disproportionately in prisons or studies of the causes and effects of incarceration.
* There are no records of how many cases occurred during the British epidemic, but one expert, Elizabeth Miller, notes that in nonepidemic years during this era, two hundred to three hundred children were born with congenital rubella syndrome in England and Wales. Miller estimates that there could have been ten times as many born on the heels of an epidemic. Interested readers should see Elizabeth Miller, “Rubella in the United Kingdom,” Epidemiology and Infection 107 (1991): 34.
* The name of this government agency has since changed several times; today it is the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. But the acronym, CDC, has remained unchanged.
* One reason that critics were initially skeptical of the Australian Norman Gregg’s 1941 findings was because his study was “retrospective,” meaning that he asked the mothers about their history of rubella infection only after their babies had been born and diagnosed with congenital rubella. By contrast, the study that found ten of ten embryos affected, published in the Lancet in 1988, was prospective: scientists followed the pregnancies from the time of the diagnosis of rubella in the mother in early pregnancy and tracked the babies’ outcomes.
* Plotkin and his colleagues reported on the number of black newborns because virtually all babies born at PGH were black. They actually measured the number of babies born with heart and eye defects—a proxy for congenital rubella syndrome. Because deafness, its most common manifestation, is hard to diagnose in newborns and wasn’t captured in their survey, they estimated that in actuality closer to 1.4 percent of newborns at the hospital were affected.
* Despite rubella’s stunting effect on cell division, the kidney cells from fetus 27 did grow long enough in their lab bottles to be split four times. Plotkin surmised that they were capable of doing so because relatively few of the kidney cells were infected with rubella when he first planted the cells in bottles.
* Five decades and several mergers and acquisitions later, Smith, Kline & French has morphed into what today is the giant Britain-based drug company GlaxoSmithKline.
* This new adenovirus vaccine replaced the vaccine made using monkey cells that was fed to about 100,000 members of the U.S. military between 1955 and 1961 and was dropped when it was discovered to be widely contaminated with the silent monkey virus, SV40.