20Sarris, Empires of Faith, pp. 234–6.
21Procopius, Buildings, 3.3, 7, pp. 192–4.
22J. Howard-Johnston, Witnesses to a World Crisis: Historians and Histories of the Middle East in the Seventh Century (Oxford, 2010), pp. 438–9.
23Synod of Mar Gregory I, Synodicon orientale, p. 471. Also see Walker, Mar Qardagh, pp. 87–9.
24F. Conybeare, ‘Antiochos Strategos’ Account of the Sack of Jerusalem in AD 614’, English Historical Review 25 (1910), 506–8, but see Howard-Johnston, Witnesses to a World Crisis, pp. 164–5. For the propaganda, J. Howard-Johnston, ‘Heraclius’ Persian Campaigns and the Revival of the Roman Empire’, War in History 6 (1999), 36–9.
25Chronicon Paschale, tr. M. Whitby and M. Whitby (Liverpool, 1989), pp. 161–2; Howard-Johnston, ‘Heraclius’ Persian Campaigns’, 3; Sarris, Empires of Faith, p. 248.
26Chronicon Paschale, pp. 158, 164.
27Howard-Johnston, ‘Heraclius’ Persian Campaigns’, 37.
28The precise date is contentious; R. Altheim-Stiehl, ‘Würde Alexandreia im Juni 619 n. Chr. durch die Perser Erobert?’, Tyche 6 (1991), 3–16.
29J. Howard-Johnston, ‘The Siege of Constantinople in 626’, in C. Mango and G. Dagron (eds), Constantinople and its Hinterland (Aldershot, 1995), pp. 131–42.
30Howard-Johnston, ‘Heraclius’ Persian Campaigns’, 23–4; C. Zuckerman, ‘La Petite Augusta et le Turc: Epiphania-Eudocie sur les monnaies d’Héraclius’, Revue Numismatique 150 (1995), 113–26.
31See N. Oikonomides, ‘Correspondence between Heraclius and Kavadh-Siroe in the Paschal Chronicle (628)’, Byzantion 41 (1971), 269–81.
32Sebeos, Armenian History, 40, pp. 86–7; Theophanes, The Chronicle of Theophanes Confessor: Byzantine and Near Eastern History, AD 284–813, tr. C. Mango and R. Scott (Oxford, 1997), pp. 455–6.
33Chronicon Paschale, pp. 166–7; Sebeos, Armenian History, 38, pp. 79–81.
34G. Dagron and V. Déroche, ‘Juifs et chrétiens en Orient byzantin’, Travaux et Mémoires 11 (1994), 28ff.
35Cameron and Hoyland, Doctrine and Debate, pp. xxi–xxii.
36Letter of the Bishops of Persia, Synodicon orientale, pp. 584–5.
37Theophanes, Chronicle, p. 459; Mango, ‘Deux études sur Byzance et la Perse sassanide’, Travaux et Mémoires 9 (1985), 117.
38B. Dols, ‘Plague in Early Islamic History’, Journal of the American Oriental Society 94.3 (1974), 376; P. Sarris, ‘The Justinianic Plague: Origins and Effects’, Continuity and Change 17.2 (2002), 171.
39Bowersock, Throne of Adulis, pp. 106–33. Also G. Lüling, Die Wiederentdeckung des Propheten Muhammad: eine Kritik am ‘christlichen’ Abendland (Erlangen, 1981).
40C. Robin, ‘Arabia and Ethiopia’, in S. Johnson (ed.), Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity (Oxford, 2012), p. 302.
41Qurān, 96.1, ed. and tr. N. Dawood, The Koran: With a Parallel Translation of the Arabic Text (London, 2014).
42Ibn Hisham, Sīrat rasūl Allāh, tr. A. Guillaume, The Life of Muhammad: A Translation of Isāq’s Sīrat rasūl Allāh (Oxford, 1955), p. 106; Qurān, 81.23, p. 586.
43See H. Motzki, ‘The Collection of the Qur’ān: A Reconsideration of Western Views in Light of Recent Methodological Developments’, Der Islam 78 (2001), 1–34, and also A. Neuwirth, N. Sinai and M. Marx (eds), The Qurān in Context: Historical and Literary Investigations into the Qurānic Milieu (Leiden, 2010).
44Qurān, 18.56, p. 299.
45Qurān, 16.98–9, p. 277.
46For example, Qurān, 2.165; 2.197; 2.211.
47See above all F. Donner, Narratives of Islamic Origins: The Beginnings of Islamic Historical Writing (Princeton, 1998). Also, for example, T. Holland, In the Shadow of the Sword: The Battle for Global Empire and the End of the Ancient World (London, 2012).
48E. El Badawi, The Qurān and the Aramaic Gospel Traditions (London, 2013).
49P. Crone, Meccan Trade and the Rise of Islam (Princeton, 1977); also R. Serjeant, ‘Meccan Trade and the Rise of Islam: Misconceptions and Flawed Polemics’, Journal of the American Oriental Society 110.3 (1990), 472–3.
50C. Robinson, ‘The Rise of Islam’, in M. Cook et al. (eds), The New Cambridge History of Islam, 6 vols (Cambridge, 2010), pp. 180–1; M. Kister, ‘The Struggle against Musaylima and the Conquest of Yamāma’, Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam 27 (2002), 1–56.
51G. Heck, ‘“Arabia without Spices”: An Alternative Hypothesis: The Issue of “Makkan Trade and the Rise of Islam”’, Journal of the American Oriental Society 123.3 (2003), 547–76; J. Schiettecatte and C. Robin, L’Arabie à la veille de l’Islam: un bilan clinique (Paris, 2009).
52P. Crone, ‘Quraysh and the Roman Army: Making Sense of the Meccan Leather Trade’, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 70.1 (2007), 63–88.
53Ibn al-Kalbī, Kitāb al-anām, tr. N. Faris, The Book of Idols Being a Translation from the Arabic of the Kitāb al-anām (Princeton, 1952), pp. 23–4.
54Qurān, 36.33–6, p. 441; G. Reinink, ‘Heraclius, the New Alexander: Apocalyptic Prophecies during the Reign of Heraclius’, pp. 81–94; W. E. Kaegi Jr, ‘New Evidence on the Early Reign of Heraclius’, Byzantinische Zeitschrift 66 (1973), 308–30.
55Qurān, 47.15, p. 507.
56Qurān, 5.33, p. 112.
57Qurān, 4.56, p. 86. Also W. Shepard, Sayyid Qutb and Islamic Activism: A Translation and Critical Analysis of Social Justice in Islam (Leiden, 2010). Also note the important observations about gender and social justice in early Islam, A. Wahud, Qurān and Woman: Rereading the Sacred Text from a Woman’s Perspective (Oxford, 1999).
58Qurān, 47.15, p. 507.
59P. Crone, ‘The Religion of the Qurānic Pagans: God and the Lesser Deities’, Arabica 57 (2010), 151–200.
60R. Hoyland, ‘New Documentary Texts and the Early Islamic State’, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 69.3 (2006), 395–416. For the date of Muammad’s flight, A. Noth, The Early Arabic Historical Tradition: A Source Critical Study (Princeton, 1994), p. 40; M. Cook and P. Crone, Hagarism: The Making of the Islamic World (Cambridge, 1977), pp. 24, 157.
61Nikephoros of Constantinople, Chronographikon syntomon, ed. and tr. C. Mango, Short History (Washington, DC, 1990), pp. 68–9; Theophylact Simokatta, History, 3.17. For Arab ‘identity’ before the rise of Islam, A. Al-Azmeh, The Emergence of Islam in Late Antiquity (Oxford, 2014), p. 147; also see W. Kaegi, ‘Reconceptualizing Byzantium’s Eastern Frontiers’, in Mathisen and Sivan, Shifting Frontiers, p. 88.
62Qurān, 43.3, p. 488.
63C. Robinson, ‘Rise of Islam’, p. 181.
64Mālik records two similar variants, presumably reflecting the comment’s pedigree, Mālik ibn Anas, al-Muwaa, 45.5, tr. A. Abdarahman and Y. Johnson (Norwich, 1982), p. 429.
65Qurān, 2.143–4, p. 21; also al-Azmeh, Emergence of Islam, p. 419.
66Qurān, 22.27–9, pp. 334–5.
67R. Frye, ‘The Political History of Iran under the Sasanians’, in Cambridge History of Iran, 3.1, p. 178; Tabarī, The Battle of al-Qādisiyyah and the Conquest of Syria and Palestine, tr. Y. Friedmann (Albany, NY, 1992), pp. 45–6.
68H. Kennedy, The Great Arab Conquests (London, 2007), pp. 103–5.
69Tabarī, Battle of al-Qādisiyyah, p. 63.
70Ibid.
71Qurān, 29.1–5, p. 395.
72Crone, Meccan Trade, p. 245.
73C. Robinson, The First Islamic Empire, in J. Arnason and K. Raaflaub (eds), The Roman Empire in Context: Historical and Comparative Perspectives (Oxford, 2010), p. 239; G.-R. Puin, Der Dīwān von Umar Ibn al-attab (Bonn, 1970); F. Donner, The Early Islamic Conquests (Princeton, 1981), pp. 231–2, 261–3.
74Pourshariati, Decline and Fall of the Sasanian Empire, pp. 161ff. Also here Donner, Early Islamic Conquests, pp. 176–90; Kennedy, Arab Conquests, pp. 105–7.
75For the date of the conquest of Jerusalem, P. Booth, Crisis of Empire: Doctrine and Dissent at the End of Late Antiquity (Berkeley, 2014), p. 243.
76Sebeos, Armenian Histo
ry, 42, p. 98.
77See Howard-Johnston, Witnesses to Crisis, pp. 373–5.
Chapter 5 – The Road to Concord
1For the text, F. Donner, Muhammad and the Believers: At the Origins of Islam (Cambridge, MA, 2010), pp. 228–32. Also M. Lecker, The ‘Constitution of Medina’: Muhammad’s First Legal Document (Princeton, 2004).
2See the important collection of essays in M. Goodman, G. van Kooten and J. van Ruiten, Abraham, the Nations and the Hagarites: Jewish, Christian and Islamic Perspectives on Kinship with Abraham (Leiden, 2010).
3Doctrina Iacobi in Dagron and Déroche, ‘Juifs et chrétiens’, 209. Translation here by R. Hoyland, Seeing Islam as Others Saw It: A Survey and Evaluation of Christian, Jewish and Zoroastrian Writings on Early Islam (Princeton, 1997), p. 57.
4Note therefore W. van Bekkum, ‘Jewish Messianic Expectations in the Age of Heraclius’, in G. Reinink and H. Stolte (eds), The Reign of Heraclius (610–641): Crisis and Confrontation (Leuven, 2002), pp. 95–112.
5Dagron and Déroche, ‘Juifs et chrétiens’, 240–7. For the reliability of much of the information in the text, Howard-Johnston, Witnesses to a World Crisis, pp. 155–7; for the likely audience and purpose of the text, D. Olster, Roman Defeat, Christian Response and the Literary Construction of the Jew (Philadelphia, 1994). Above all here, Hoyland, Seeing Islam as Others Saw It.
6J. Reeves, Trajectories in Near Eastern Apocalyptic: A Postrabbinic Jewish Apocalypse Reader (Leiden, 2006), pp. 78–89; B. Lewis, ‘An Apocalyptic Vision of Islamic History’, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 13 (1950), 321–30. Also see S. Shoemaker, The Death of a Prophet: The End of Muhammad’s Life and the Beginnings of Islam (Philadelphia, 2012), pp. 28–33.
7Canonici Hebronensis Tractatus de invention sanctorum patriarchum Abraham, Ysaac et Yacob, in Recueil des Historiens des Croisades: Historiens Occidentaux 1, p. 309; translation by N. Stillman, The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book (Philadelphia, 1979), p. 152.
8M. Conterno, ‘“L’abominio della desolazione nel luogo santo”: l’ingresso di Umar I a Gerusalemme nella Cronografia de Teofane Confessore e in tre cronache siriache’, in Quaderni di storia religiosa 17 (2010), pp. 9–24.
9J. Binns, Ascetics and Ambassadors of Christ: The Monasteries of Palestine 314–631 (Oxford, 1994); B. Horn, Asceticism and Christological Controversy in Fifth-Century Palestine: The Career of Peter the Iberian (Oxford, 2006); Cameron and Hoyland, Doctrine and Debate, p. xxix.
10S. Brock, ‘North Mesopotamia in the Late Seventh Century: Book XV of John Bar Penkaye’s Rish Melle’, Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam 9 (1987), 65.
11Corpus Scriptorum Christianorum Orientalium, Series 3, 64, pp. 248–51; Donner, Muhammad and the Believers, p. 114.
12Qurān, 2.87, p. 12.
13Qurān, 3.3, p. 49.
14Qurān, 2.42–3, p. 54.
15Cameron and Hoyland, Doctrine and Debate, p. xxxii.
16Qurān, 3.65, p. 57
17Qurān, 3.103; 105, p. 62.
18Qurān, 2.62, p. 9, 5.69, p. 118.
19R. Hoyland, In God’s Path: The Arab Conquests and the Creation of an Islamic Empire (Oxford, 2015), pp. 224–9.
20Robinson, ‘The Rise of Islam’, p. 186.
21C. Luxenburg, The Syro-Aramaic Reading of the Koran: A Contribution to the Decoding of the Language of the Koran (Berlin, 2007); see here D. King, ‘A Christian Qurān? A Study in the Syriac background to the language of the Qurān as presented in the work of Christoph Luxenberg’, Journal for Late Antique Religion and Culture 3 (2009), 44–71.
22Qurān, 30.2–4, p. 403.
23Qurān, 30.6, p. 404.
24T. Sizgorich, Violence and Belief in Late Antiquity: Militant Devotion in Christianity and Islam (Philadelphia, 2009), pp. 160–1.
25R. Finn, Asceticism in the Graeco-Roman World (Cambridge, 2009).
26Qurān, 3.84, p. 60.
27Qurān, 10.19, p. 209.
28Shoemaker, Death of a Prophet, pp. 18–72. Also R. Hoyland, ‘The Earliest Christian Writings on Muhammad: An Appraisal’, in H. Motzki (ed.), The Biography of Muhammad: The Issue of the Sources (Leiden, 2000), esp. pp. 277–81; Cook, ‘Muhammad’, 75–6.
29Sophronius of Jerusalem, ‘Logos eis to hagion baptisma’, in A. Papadopoulos-Kermeus, ‘Tou en hagiois patros hemon Sophroniou archiepiskopou Hierosolymon logos eis to hagion baptisma’, Analekta Hierosolymitikes Stakhiologias 5 (St Petersburg, 1898), 166–7.
30G. Anvil, The Byzantine–Islamic Transition in Palestine: An Archaeological Approach (Oxford, 2014); R. Schick, The Christian Communities of Palestine from Byzantine to Islamic Rule (Princeton, 1995).
31al-Balādhurī, Kitâb futû al-buldân, tr. P. Hitti, The Origins of the Islamic State (New York, 1916), 8, p. 187.
32John of Nikiu, Khronike, tr. R. Charles, The Chronicle of John of Nikiu (London, 1916), 120.17–28, pp. 193–4.
33G. Garitte, ‘“Histoires édifiantes” géorgiennes’, Byzantion 36 (1966), 414–16; Holyand, Seeing Islam, p. 63.
34Robinson, First Islamic Empire, pp. 239ff.
35W. Kubiak, Al-Fustiat, Its Foundation and Early Urban Development (Cairo, 1987); N. Luz, ‘The Construction of an Islamic City in Palestine: The Case of Umayyad al-Ramla’, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 7.1 (1997), 27–54; H. Djaït, Al-Kūfa: naissance de la ville islamique (Paris, 1986); D. Whitcomb, ‘The Misr of Ayla: New Evidence for the Early Islamic City’, in G. Bisheh (ed.), Studies in the History and Archaeology of Jordan (Amman, 1995), pp. 277–88.
36J. Conant, Staying Roman: Conquest and Identity in Africa and the Mediterranean, 439–700 (Cambridge, 2012), pp. 362–70. Also P. Grossman, D. Brooks-Hedstrom and M. Abdal-Rassul, ‘The Excavation in the Monastery of Apa Shnute (Dayr Anba Shinuda) at Suhag’, Dumbarton Oaks Papers 58 (2004), 371–82; E. Bolman, S. Davis and G. Pyke, ‘Shenoute and a Recently Discovered Tomb Chapel at the White Monastery’, Journal of Early Christian Studies 18.3 (2010), 453–62; for Palestine, L. di Segni, ‘Greek Inscriptions in Transition from the Byzantine to the Early Islamic Period’, in Hoyland, Hellenism to Islam, pp. 352–73.
37N. Green, ‘The Survival of Zoroastrianism in Yazd’, Iran 28 (2000), 115–22.
38A. Tritton, The Caliphs and their Non-Muslim Subjects: A Critical Study of the Covenant of Umar (London, 1970); Hoyland, God’s Path, esp. pp. 207–31.
39N. Khairy and A.-J. Amr, ‘Early Islamic Inscribed Pottery Lamps from Jordan’, Levant 18 (1986), 152.
40G. Bardy, ‘Les Trophées de Damas: controverse judéo-chrétienne du VIIe siècle’, Patrologia Orientalis 15 (1921), 222.
41J. Johns, ‘Archaeology and the History of Early Islam: The First Seventy Years’, Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 46.4 (2003), 411–36; A. Oddy, ‘The Christian Coinage of Early Muslim Syria’, ARAM 15 (2003), 185–96.
42E. Whelan, ‘Forgotten Witnesses: Evidence for the Early Codification of the Qur’an’, Journal of the American Oriental Society 118.1 (1998), 1–14; W. Graham and N. Kermani, ‘Recitation and Aesthetic Reception’, in J. McAuliffe (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to the Qurān (Cambridge, 2005), pp. 115–43, S. Blair, ‘Transcribing God’s Word: Qur’an Codices in Context’, Journal of Qur’anic Studies 10.1 (2008), 72–97.
43R. Hoyland, ‘Jacob of Edessa on Islam’, in G. Reinink and A. Cornelis Klugkist (eds), After Bardasian: Studies on Continuity and Change in Syriac Christianity (Leuven, 1999), pp. 158–9.
44M. Whittow, The Making of Orthodox Byzantium, 600–1025 (London, 1996), pp. 141–2.
45R. Hoyland, ‘Writing the Biography of the Prophet Muhammad: Problems and Sources’, History Compass 5.2 (2007), 593–6. Also see I. and W. Schulze, ‘The Standing Caliph Coins of al-Jazīra: Some Problems and Suggestions’, Numismatic Chronicle 170 (2010), 331–53; S. Heidemann, ‘The Evolving Representation of the Early Islamic Empire and its Religion on Coin Imagery’, in A. Neuwirth, N. Sinai and M. Marx (eds), The Qurān in Context: Historical and Literary Investigations into the Qurānic Milieu
(Leiden, 2010), pp. 149–95.
46B. Flood, The Great Mosque of Damascus: Studies on the Makings of an Umayyad Visual Culture (Leiden, 2001).
47Johns, ‘Archaeology and History of Early Islam’, 424–5. Also see Hoyland, Seeing Islam, esp. pp. 550–3, 694–5, and in general P. Crone and M. Hinds, God’s Caliph: Religious Authority in the First Centuries of Islam (Cambridge, 1986).
48O. Grabar, The Dome of the Rock (Cambridge, MA, 2006), pp. 91–2.
49John of Damascus, On Heresies, tr. F. Chase, The Fathers of the Church (Washington, DC, 1958), 101, p. 153; Sarris, Empires of Faith, p. 266.
50For example, M. Bennett, Fighting Techniques of the Medieval World AD 500–AD 1500: Equipment, Combat Skills and Tactics (Staplehurst, 2005).
51P. Reynolds, Trade in the Western Mediterranean, AD 400–700: The Ceramic Evidence (Oxford, 1995); S. Kinsley, ‘Mapping Trade by Shipwrecks’, in M. Mundell Mango (ed.), Byzantine Trade, 4th–12th Centuries (Farnham, 2009), pp. 31–6. See M. McCormick, Origins of the European Economy: Communications and Commerce, AD 300–900 (Cambridge, 2001); Wickham, Inheritance of Rome, esp. pp. 255ff.
52de la Vaissière, Sogdian Traders, pp. 279–86.
53al-Yaqūbī and al-Balādhurī cited by J. Banaji, ‘Islam, the Mediterranean and the Rise of Capitalism’, Historical Materialism 15 (2007), 47–74, esp. 59–60.
54For the loose structures across the Sogdian world at this time, de la Vaissière, Marchands sogdiens, pp. 144–76.
55See here F. Grenet and E. de la Vaissière, ‘The Last Days of Panjikent’, Silk Road Art and Archaeology 8 (2002), 155–96.
56See here J. Karam Skaff, Sui-Tang China and Its Turko-Mongol Neighbours: Culture, Power, and Connections, 580–800 (Oxford, 2012).
57D. Graff, ‘Strategy and Contingency in the Tang Defeat of the Eastern Turks, 629–30’, in N. di Cosmo (ed.), Warfare in Inner Asian History, 500–1800 (Leiden, 2002), pp. 33–72.
58de la Vaissière, Sogdian Traders, pp. 217–20.
59C. Mackerras, The Uighur Empire According to the T’ang Dynastic Histories (Canberra, 1972); T. Allsen, Commodity and Exchange in the Mongol Empire: A Cultural History of Islamic Textiles (Cambridge, 1997), p. 65.
The Silk Roads: A New History of the World Page 69