The Silk Roads: A New History of the World

by Frankopan, Peter

  61‘The Secretary of State to the Department of State’, 10 November 1951, FRUS, 1952–1954: Iran, 1951–1954, 10, p. 279.

  62Ibid.

  63R. Ramazani, Iran’s Foreign Policy, 1941–1973: A Study of Foreign Policy in Modernizing Nations (Charlottesville, 1975), p. 190.

  64In de Bellaigue, Patriot of Persia, p. 150.

  65Yergin, The Prize, p. 437.

  66Cited by J. Bill, The Eagle and the Lion: The Tragedy of American–Iranian Relations (New Haven, 1988), p. 84.

  67Correspondence between His Majesty’s Government in the United Kingdom and the Persian Government and Related Documents Concerning the Oil Industry in Persia, February 1951 to September 1951 (London, 1951), p. 25.

  68Shinwell, Chiefs of Staff Committee, Confidential Annex, 23 May 1951, DEFE 4/43; for the British press at this time, de Bellaigue, Patriot of Persia, pp. 158–9.

  69S. Arjomand, The Turban for the Crown: The Islamic Revolution in Iran (Oxford, 1988), pp. 92–3.

  70Time, 7 January 1952.

  71Elm, Oil, Power, and Principle, p. 122.

  72M. Holland, America and Egypt: From Roosevelt to Eisenhower (Westport, CT, 1996), pp. 24–5.

  73H. Wilford, America’s Great Game: The CIA’s Secret Arabists and the Shaping of the Modern Middle East (New York, 2013), p. 73.

  74Ibid., p. 96.

  75Ibid.

  76D. Wilber, Clandestine Services History: Overthrow of Premier Mossadeq of Iran: November 1952–August 1953 (1969), p. 7, National Security Archive.

  77Ibid., pp. 22, 34, 33.

  78See S. Koch, ‘Zendebad, Shah!’: The Central Intelligence Agency and the Fall of Iranian Prime Minister Mohammed Mossadeq, August 1953 (1998), National Security Archive.

  79M. Gasiorowki, ‘The Causes of Iran’s 1953 Coup: A Critique of Darioush Bayandor’s Iran and the CIA’, Iranian Studies 45.5 (2012), 671–2; W. Louis, ‘Britain and the Overthrow of the Mosaddeq Government’, in Gasiorowski and Byrne, Mohammad Mosaddeq, pp. 141–2.

  80Wilber, Overthrow of Premier Mossadeq, p. 35.

  81Ibid., p. 19.

  82Berry to State Department, 17 August 1953, National Security Archive.

  83For the radio, see M. Roberts, ‘Analysis of Radio Propaganda in the 1953 Iran Coup’, Iranian Studies 45.6 (2012), 759–77; for the press, de Bellaigue, Patriot of Persia, p. 232.

  84For Rome, Soraya Esfandiary Bakhtiary, Le Palais des solitudes (Paris, 1992), pp. 165–6. Also here Buchan, Days of God, p. 70.

  85de Bellaigue, Patriot of Persia, pp. 253–70.

  86‘Substance of Discussions of State – Joint Chiefs of Staff Meeting’, 12 December 1951, FRUS, 1951: The Near East and Africa, 5, p. 435.

  87‘British-American Planning Talks, Summary Record’, 10–11 October 1978, FCO 8/3216.

  88‘Memorandum of Discussion at the 160th Meeting of the National Security Council, 27 August 1953’, FRUS, 1952–1954: Iran, 1951–1954, 10, p. 773.

  89‘The Ambassador in Iran (Henderson) to Department of State’, 18 September 1953, FRUS, 1952–1954: Iran, 1951–1954, 10, p. 799.

  Chapter 22 – The American Silk Road

  1The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and US National Security, United States Congress, Senate (Washington, DC, 1974), pp. 57–8; Yergin, The Prize, p. 453.

  2Bill, The Eagle and the Lion, p. 88; ‘Memorandum of the discussion at the 180th meeting of the National Security Council’, 14 January 1954, FRUS, 1952–1954: Iran, 1951–1954, 10, p. 898.

  3M. Gasiorowski, US Foreign Policy and the Shah: Building a Client State in Iran (Ithaca, NY, 1991), pp. 150–1.

  4V. Nemchenok, ‘“That So Fair a Thing Should Be So Frail”: The Ford Foundation and the Failure of Rural Development in Iran, 1953–1964’, Middle East Journal 63.2 (2009), 261–73.

  5Ibid., 281; Gasiorowski, US Foreign Policy, pp. 53, 94.

  6C. Schayegh, ‘Iran’s Karaj Dam Affair: Emerging Mass Consumerism, the Politics of Promise, and the Cold War in the Third World’, Comparative Studies in Society and History 54.3 (2012), 612–43.

  7‘Memorandum from the Joint Chiefs of Staff’, 24 March 1949, FRUS, 1949: The Near East, South Asia, and Africa, 6, pp. 30–1.

  8‘Report by the SANACC [State-Army-Navy-Air Force Co-ordinating Committee] Subcommittee for the Near and Middle East’, FRUS, 1949: The Near East, South Asia, and Africa, 6, p. 12.

  9In general here, B. Yesilbursa, Baghdad Pact: Anglo-American Defence Policies in the Middle East, 1950–59 (Abingdon, 2005).

  10R. McMahon, The Cold War on the Periphery: The United States, India and Pakistan (New York, 1994), pp. 16–17.

  11P. Tomsen, The Wars of Afghanistan: Messianic Terrorism, Tribal Conflicts and the Failures of the Great Powers (New York, 2011), pp. 181–2.

  12R. McNamara, Britain, Nasser and the Balance of Power in the Middle East, 1952–1967 (London, 2003), pp. 44–5.

  13A. Moncrieff, Suez: Ten Years After (New York, 1966), pp. 40–1; D. Kunz, The Economic Diplomacy of the Suez Crisis (Chapel Hill, NC, 1991), p. 68.

  14Eden to Eisenhower, 6 Sept 1956, FO 800/740.

  15M. Heikal, Nasser: The Cairo Documents (London, 1972), p. 88.

  16H. Macmillan, Diary, 25 August 1956, in A. Horne, Macmillan: The Official Biography (London, 2008), p. 447.

  17Cited by McNamara, Britain, Nasser and the Balance of Power, p. 46.

  18McNamara, Britain, Nasser and the Balance of Power, pp. 45, 47.

  19‘Effects of the Closing of the Suez Canal on Sino-Soviet Bloc Trade and Transportation’, Office of Research and Reports, Central Intelligence Agency, 21 February 1957, Freedom of Information Act Electronic Reading Room, Central Intelligence Agency.

  20Kirkpatrick to Makins, 10 September 1956, FO 800/740.

  21Papers of Dwight David Eisenhower: The Presidency: The Middle Way (Baltimore, 1970), 17, p. 2415.

  22See here W. Louis and R. Owen, Suez 1956: The Crisis and its Consequences (Oxford, 1989); P. Hahn, The United States, Great Britain, and Egypt, 1945–1956: Strategy and Diplomacy in the Early Cold War (Chapel Hill, NC, 1991).

  23Eisenhower to Dulles, 12 December 1956, in P. Hahn, ‘Securing the Middle East: The Eisenhower Doctrine of 1957’, Presidential Studies Quarterly 36.1 (2006), 39.

  24Cited by Yergin, The Prize, p. 459.

  25Hahn, ‘Securing the Middle East’, 40.

  26See above all S. Yaqub, Containing Arab Nationalism: The Eisenhower Doctrine and the Middle East (Chapel Hill, NC, 2004).

  27R. Popp, ‘Accommodating to a Working Relationship: Arab Nationalism and US Cold War Policies in the Middle East’, Cold War History 10.3 (2010), 410.

  28‘The Communist Threat to Iraq’, 17 February 1959, FRUS, 1958–1960: Near East Region; Iraq; Iran; Arabian Peninsula, 12, pp. 381–8.

  29S. Blackwell, British Military Intervention and the Struggle for Jordan: King Hussein, Nasser and the Middle East Crisis (London, 2013), p. 176; ‘Memorandum of Conference with President Eisenhower’, 23 July 1958, FRUS, 1958–1960: Near East Region; Iraq; Iran; Arabian Peninsula, 12, p. 84.

  30‘Iraq: The Dissembler’, Time, 13 April 1959.

  31‘Middle East: Revolt in Baghdad’, Time, 21 July 1958; J. Romero, The Iraqi Revolution of 1958: A Revolutionary Quest for Unity and Security (Lanham, MD, 2011).

  32C. Andrew and V. Mitrokhin, The KGB and the World: The Mitrokhin Archive II (London, 2005), pp. 273–4; W. Shawcross, The Shah’s Last Ride (London, 1989), p. 85.

  33OIR Report, 16 January 1959, cited by Popp, ‘Arab Nationalism and US Cold War Policies’, p. 403.

  34Yaqub, Containing Arab Nationalism, p. 256.

  35W. Louis and R. Owen, A Revolutionary Year: The Middle East in 1958 (London, 2002).

  36F. Matar, Saddam Hussein: The Man, the Cause and his Future (London, 1981), pp. 32–44.

  37‘Memorandum of Discussion at the 420th Meeting of the National Security Council’, 1 October 1959, FRUS, 1958–1960: Near East Region; Iraq; Iran; Arabian Peninsula, 12, p. 489, n. 6.
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  38This incident was revealed during investigations in 1975 into the use of assassination as a political tool by US intelligence agencies. The colonel, who is not named, was apparently executed by firing squad in Baghdad before the handkerchief plan was put into action, Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders, Interim Report of the Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities (Washington, DC, 1975), p. 181, n. 1.

  39H. Rositzke, The CIA’s Secret Operations: Espionage, Counterespionage and Covert Action (Boulder, CO, 1977), pp. 109–10.

  40A. Siddiqi, Challenge to Apollo: The Soviet Union and the Space Race, 1945–1974 (Washington, DC, 2000); B. Chertok, Rakety i lyudi: Fili Podlipki Tyuratam (Moscow, 1996).

  41A. Siddiqi, Sputnik and the Soviet Space Challenge (Gainesville, FL, 2003), pp. 135–8.

  42G. Laird, North American Air Defense: Past, Present and Future (Maxwell, AL, 1975); S. Zaloga, ‘Most Secret Weapon: The Origins of Soviet Strategic Cruise Missiles, 1945–1960’, Journal of Slavic Military Studies 6.2 (1993), 262–73.

  43D. Kux, The United States and Pakistan, 1947–2000: Disenchanted Allies (Washington, DC, 2001), p. 112; N. Polmar, Spyplane: The U-2 History Declassified (Osceola, WI, 2001), pp. 131–48.

  44Karachi to Washington DC, 31 October 1958, FRUS, 1958–60: South and Southeast Asia, 15, p. 682.

  45Memcon Eisenhower and Ayub, 8 December 1959, FRUS, 1958–60: South and Southeast Asia, 15, pp. 781–95.

  46R. Barrett, The Greater Middle East and the Cold War: US Foreign Policy under Eisenhower and Kennedy (London, 2007), pp. 167–8.

  47Department of State Bulletin, 21 July 1958.

  48Kux, United States and Pakistan, pp. 110–11.

  49V. Nemchenok, ‘In Search of Stability amid Chaos: US Policy toward Iran, 1961–63’, Cold War History 10.3 (2010), 345.

  50Central Intelligence Bulletin, 7 February 1961; A. Rubinstein, Soviet Foreign Policy toward Turkey, Iran and Afghanistan: The Dynamics of Influence (New York, 1982), pp. 67–8.

  51National Security Council Report, Statement of US Policy to Iran, 6 July 1960, FRUS, 1958–1960: Near East Region; Iraq; Iran; Arabian Peninsula, 12, pp. 680–8.

  52M. Momen, ‘The Babi and the Baha’i Community of Iran: A Case of “Suspended Genocide”?’, Journal of Genocide Research 7.2 (2005), 221–42.

  53E. Abrahamian, Iran between Two Revolutions (Princeton, 1982), pp. 421–2.

  54J. Freivalds, ‘Farm Corporations in Iran: An Alternative to Traditional Agriculture’, Middle East Journal 26.2 (1972), 185–93; J. Carey and A. Carey, ‘Iranian Agriculture and its Development: 1952–1973’, International Journal of Middle East Studies 7.3 (1976), 359–82.

  55H. Ruhani, Nehzat-e Imam-e Khomeini, 2 vols (Teheran, 1979), 1, p. 25.

  56CIA Bulletin, 5 May 1961, cited by Nemchenok, ‘In Search of Stability’, 348.

  57Gahnamye panjah sal Shahanshahiye Pahlavi (Paris, 1964), 24 January 1963.

  58See D. Brumberg, Reinventing Khomeini: The Struggle for Reform in Iran (Chicago, 2001).

  59D. Zahedi, The Iranian Revolution: Then and Now (Boulder, CO, 2000), p. 156.

  60‘United States Support for Nation-Building’ (1968); US Embassy Teheran to State Department, 4 May 1972, both cited by R. Popp, ‘An Application of Modernization Theory during the Cold War? The Case of Pahlavi Iran’, International History Review 30.1 (2008), 86–7.

  61Polk to Mayer, 23 April 1965, cited by Popp, ‘Pahlavi Iran’, 94.

  62Zahedi, Iranian Revolution, p. 155.

  63A. Danielsen, The Evolution of OPEC (New York, 1982); F. Parra, Oil Politics: A Modern History of Petroleum (London, 2004), pp. 89ff.

  64Above all see M. Oren, Six Days of War: June 1967 and the Making of the Modern Middle East (Oxford, 2002).

  Chapter 23 – The Road of Superpower Rivalry

  1P. Pham, Ending ‘East of Suez’: The British Decision to Withdraw from Malaysia and Singapore, 1964–1968 (Oxford, 2010).

  2G. Stocking, Middle East Oil: A Study in Political and Economic Controversy (Nashville, TN, 1970), p. 282; H. Astarjian, The Struggle for Kirkuk: The Rise of Hussein, Oil and the Death of Tolerance in Iraq (London, 2007), p. 158.

  3‘Moscow and the Persian Gulf’, Intelligence Memorandum, 12 May 1972, FRUS, 1969–1976: Documents on Iran and Iraq, 1969–72, E-4, 307.

  4Izvestiya, 12 July 1969.

  5Buchan, Days of God, p. 129.

  6Kwarteng, Ghosts of Empire, pp. 72–3.

  7Department of State to Embassy in France, Davies-Lopinot talk on Iraq and Persian Gulf, 20 April 1972, FRUS, 1969–1976: Documents on Iran and Iraq, 1969–72, E-4, 306.

  8G. Payton, ‘The Somali Coup of 1969: The Case for Soviet Complicity’, Journal of Modern African Studies 18.3 (1980), 493–508.

  9Popp, ‘Arab Nationalism and US Cold War Policies’, 408.

  10‘Soviet aid and trade activities in the Indian Ocean Area’, CIA report, S-6064 (1974); V. Goshev, SSSR i strany Persidskogo zaliva (Moscow, 1988).

  11US Arms Control and Disarmament Agency, World Military Expenditure and Arms Transfers, 1968–1977 (Washington, DC, 1979), p. 156; R. Menon, Soviet Power and the Third World (New Haven, 1986), p. 173; for Iraq, A. Fedchenko, Irak v bor’be za nezavisimost’ (Moscow, 1970).

  12S. Mehrotra, ‘The Political Economy of Indo-Soviet Relations’, in R. Cassen (ed.), Soviet Interests in the Third World (London, 1985), p. 224; L. Racioppi, Soviet Policy towards South Asia since 1970 (Cambridge, 1994), pp. 63–5.

  13L. Dupree, Afghanistan (Princeton, 1973), pp. 525–6.

  14‘The Shah of Iran: An Interview with Mohammad Reza Pahlavi’, New Atlantic, 1 December 1973.

  15Ibid.

  16Boardman to Douglas-Home, August 1973, FCO 55/1116. Also O. Freedman, ‘Soviet Policy towards Ba’athist Iraq, 1968–1979’, in R. Donaldson (ed.), The Soviet Union in the Third World (Boulder, CO, 1981), pp. 161–91.

  17Saddam Hussein, On Oil Nationalisation (Baghdad, 1973), pp. 8, 10.

  18R. Bruce St John, Libya: From Colony to Revolution (Oxford, 2012), pp. 138–9.

  19Gaddafi, ‘Address at Ţubruq’, 7 November 1969, in ‘The Libyan Revolution in the Words of its Leaders’, Middle East Journal 24.2 (1970), 209.

  20Ibid., 209–10; M. Ansell and M. al-Arif, The Libyan Revolution: A Sourcebook of Legal and Historical Documents (Stoughton, WI, 1972), p. 280; Multinational Corporations and United States Foreign Policy, 93rd Congressional Hearings (Washington, DC, 1975), 8, pp. 771–3, cited by Yergin, The Prize, p. 562.

  21F. Halliday, Iran, Dictatorship and Development (Harmondsworth, 1979), p. 139; Yergin, The Prize, p. 607.

  22P. Marr, Modern History of Iraq (London, 2004), p. 162.

  23Embassy in Tripoli to Washington, 5 December 1970, cited by Yergin, The Prize, p. 569.

  24G. Hughes, ‘Britain, the Transatlantic Alliance, and the Arab–Israeli War of 1973’, Journal of Cold War Studies 10.2 (2008), 3–40.

  25‘The Agranat Report: The First Partial Report’, Jerusalem Journal of International Relations 4.1 (1979), 80. Also see here U. Bar-Joseph, The Watchman Fell Asleep: The Surprise of Yom Kippur and its Sources (Albany, NY, 2005), esp. pp. 174–83.

  26A. Rabinovich, The Yom Kippur War: The Epic Encounter that Transformed the Middle East (New York, 2004), p. 25; Andrew and Mitrokhin, The Mitrokhin Archive II, p. 160.

  27G. Golan, ‘The Soviet Union and the Yom Kippur War’, in P. Kumaraswamy, Revisiting the Yom Kippur War (London, 2000), pp. 127–52; idem, ‘The Cold War and the Soviet Attitude towards the Arab–Israeli Conflict’, in N. Ashton (ed.), The Cold War in the Middle East: Regional Conflict and the Superpowers, 1967–73 (London, 2007), p. 63.

  28H. Kissinger, Years of Upheaval (Boston, 1982), p. 463.

  29‘Address to the Nation about Policies to Deal with the Energy Shortages’, 7 November 1973, Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States [PPPUS]: Richard M. Nixon, 1973 (Washington, DC, 1975), pp. 916–17.

  30Ibid; Yergin, The Priz
e, pp. 599–601

  31D. Tihansky, ‘Impact of the Energy Crisis on Traffic Accidents’, Transport Research 8 (1974), 481–3.

  32S. Godwin and D. Kulash, ‘The 55 mph Speed Limit on US Roads: Issues Involved’, Transport Reviews: A Transnational Transdisciplinary Journal 8.3 (1988), 219–35.

  33See for example R. Knowles, Energy and Form: Approach to Urban Growth (Cambridge, MA, 1974); P. Steadman, Energy, Environment and Building (Cambridge, 1975).

  34D. Rand, ‘Battery Systems for Electric Vehicles – a State-of-the-Art Review’, Journal of Power Sources 4 (1979), 101–43.

  35Speech to Seminar on Energy, 21 August 1973, cited by E. S. Godbold, Jimmy and Rosalynn Carter: The Georgian Years, 1924–1974 (Oxford, 2010), p. 239.

  36J. G. Moore, ‘The Role of Congress’, in R. Larson and R. Vest, Implementation of Solar Thermal Technology (Cambridge, MA, 1996), pp. 69–118.

  37President Nixon, ‘Memorandum Directing Reductions in Energy Consumption by the Federal Government’, 29 June 1973, PPPUS: Nixon, 1973, p. 630.

  38Yergin, The Prize, pp. 579, 607.

  39Ibid., p. 616.

  40K. Makiya, The Monument: Art, Vulgarity, and Responsibility in Iraq (Berkeley, 1991), pp. 20–32; R. Baudouï, ‘To Build a Stadium: Le Corbusier’s Project for Baghdad, 1955–1973’, DC Papers, revista de crítica y teoría de la arquitectura 1 (2008), 271–80.

  41P. Stearns, Consumerism in World History: The Global Transformation of Desire (London, 2001), p. 119.

  42Sreedhar and J. Cavanagh, ‘US Interests in Iran: Myths and Realities’, ISDA Journal 11.4 (1979), 37–40; US Arms Control and Disarmament Agency, World Military Expenditures and Arms Transfers 1972–82 (Washington, DC, 1984), p. 30; T. Moran, ‘Iranian Defense Expenditures and the Social Crisis’, International Security 3.3 (1978), 180.

  43Cited by Buchan, Days of God, p. 162.

  44A. Alnasrawi, The Economy of Iraq: Oil, Wars, Destruction of Development and Prospects, 1950–2010 (Westport, CT, 1994), p. 94; C. Tripp, A History of Iraq (Cambridge, 2000), p. 206.