Christina Queen of Sweden: The Restless Life of a European Eccentric

by Buckley, Veronica

  Whatever his private feelings, and despite his fever, the King soon rallied. A Te Deum was commanded in thanksgiving for the birth, and the baptism was quickly arranged. The child was christened Kristina Augusta,17 the same names that had been given to the elder sister who had died three years before. ‘Christine’ had been the King’s mother’s name, and his grandmother’s, too, and it was also the name of a Finnish noblewoman with whom he had once been in love – the memory of that young beauty may now have brought a smile to his lips as he announced the name he had chosen for his little daughter.18 The baby’s second name, Augusta, perhaps a loose rendering of ‘Gustav’, may have been the Queen’s choice. She is not likely at any rate to have liked the baby’s first name; there had been no love lost between herself and the King’s late mother.

  Many years later, needing to emphasize her Catholic credentials, Christina was to claim that, during her baptismal ceremony, the pastor had inadvertently blessed her baby forehead with a sign of the cross, so enrolling her unwittingly in the ‘happy militia’ of Rome. But in fact, this kind of blessing had remained fairly common in Sweden through the early decades of Lutheranism. The pastor’s sign, far from a presaging, was a gesture made instinctive from the force of long habit. And Christina’s claim, as so much of her life was to be, was no more than a ruse to persuade her audience, and perhaps even more, to persuade herself.

  Why had it been so difficult for Maria Eleonora’s attendants to determine the sex of her newborn child? The large caul would surely have been removed at once to establish the answer to this most important of dynastic questions. The baby’s loud voice, the ‘extraordinary, imperious roar’, may have been a sign of strength, but not more. It is more likely that the experienced midwives were for once confronted with something unfamiliar in the squalling little person of a baby of ambiguous sex. Though the child had been born before midnight, they waited until the morning to make their final, altered decision.

  Was the little girl really a boy? Was she a hermaphrodite, or a pseudo-hermaphrodite? Diagnoses of this kind, at a distance of centuries, must always be conjectural. It is possible that Christina was born with some kind of genital malformation, and she may even have been what would now be called intersexual or transgendered. Our own statistically-minded age records that about one in every hundred babies is born with malformed genitals of varying degrees of ambiguity, making it often difficult, and sometimes impossible, to determine the baby’s sex. There are various disorders which can cause such malformations;19 in the case of a baby girl, the most common of them would produce a perfectly healthy infant with normal internal sex organs, but often with an enlarged clitoris and partially fused labia, easily confused at first glance with the small infant penis of a longed-for male child.20

  Whatever the case, Christina’s sex, like her sexuality, was to remain ambiguous to others and ambivalent to herself throughout her tempestuous life. It would distort her relations with her mother and her father, poisoning the one and tainting the other. And in the first years of her life, it would precipitate a dynastic crisis from which she would emerge an acclaimed crown prince.

  Death of a King

  In his diary, looking back to the years of his childhood, John Evelyn records:

  I do perfectly remember…the effects of that comet, 1618…whose sad commotions sprang from the Bohemians’ defection from the Emperor Matthias: upon which quarrel the Swedes broke in, giving umbrage to the rest of the princes, and the whole Christian world cause to deplore it, as never since enjoying perfect tranquillity.’

  The English diarist’s ‘comet’ of 1618 was no less than the beginning of the Thirty Years War, set in slow motion by the infamous ‘defenestration of Prague’, when the city’s two unhappy Habsburg governors were thrown from a window of the Hradčany Castle.2 The governors, ignobly landing on a dungheap, survived unhurt, disappointing many of the Emperor’s supporters of two early martyrs to the cause. But in the following years, there had been no lack of martyrs on either side, indeed, on all sides, for the war was proving less a struggle for or against imperial power than a muddled conflict of shifting alliances, religious, territorial, political, and personal. No one, it seems, had wanted war; fear had motivated most. But defensively, pre-emptively, unwittingly, dozens and then scores of combatant armies were gradually dragged or preached or bribed into the lists of the perverse, ancient battle for peace.

  For generations, the Holy Roman Emperors of the German Nation had been successively elected from the Catholic Austrian House of Habsburg.3 The Empire, a loosely linked archipelago of hundreds of principalities and estates, cities and bishoprics, both Catholic and Protestant, was by no means exclusively German; territories as far afield as Lombardy had allowed it to claim its ‘Roman’ title, and it had once encompassed even the Papal States. But since the beginning of the Reformation, a hundred years before, its tenuous cohesion had been threatened by growing Protestant objections to the rule of a Catholic Emperor.

  Of the Empire’s seven Electors, three were Catholic bishops, three Protestant princes, and the seventh was the elected King of Bohemia, in recent decades always Catholic and always a member of the Habsburg family. But as the aged and childless Emperor Matthias began to fail in health, the restive Protestants of Bohemia saw their chance. On the Emperor’s death, a new King of Bohemia would be elected, a new voice for the choosing of the next Holy Roman Emperor. They determined that the voice would not be Catholic, nor would it be the voice of a Habsburg, and they set their sights on Friedrich, the Calvinist Elector of the Palatine.

  On Matthias’ death in March 1619, his titles of Archduke of Austria and King of Bohemia were assumed by his Habsburg cousin, Ferdinand of Styria, in the full expectation that the title of Holy Roman Emperor would also soon be his. But the Protestant Bohemians countered by deposing Ferdinand, and elected Friedrich as their King in his place. Ferdinand’s response was ferocious. In the autumn of 1620, at the great Battle of the White Mountain at Bíláhora near Prague, the Bohemian army was destroyed. Ferdinand exacted a terrible revenge: the gates of Prague were closed, and for a week his troops were licensed to take whatever they could. The city was sacked, and the gates of the Hradčany Castle itself were more than once blocked with wagonloads of plunder. For the rebels themselves, there was no mercy; the native nobility was simply wiped out, most by execution, the rest by confiscation of their lands and subsequent exile – many found their way to Sweden. Bohemia was forcibly re-Catholicized, while Friedrich’s expected allies, the union of German Protestant princes,4 stood anxiously by, shaking their heads.

  Friedrich appealed to Gustav Adolf to adopt his cause and take up arms against the Habsburg forces, but the Danes had already answered the call, and the Swedes could not be persuaded to fight alongside their old enemies and former overlords. The hapless ‘Winter King’ continued a disheartened and desultory search for help, while his own Palatinate lands were occupied by Spanish Habsburg troops, cousins to Ferdinand’s Austrians. Thenceforth the greater part of Europe was gradually sucked into the vortex. The Dutch, seizing their chance to strike at the distracted Spaniards, fanned the flames with their plentiful banknotes. Catholic France, no friend to Catholic Austria or to Catholic Spain, joined the fray on the Protestant side, while every German field and town paid its pound of flesh.

  In the months before Christina’s birth, the Spanish Habsburgs had been making a last attempt to reassert their own imperial strength, forging closer links with their Austrian relatives and trying to construct a united bloc of powers friendly to both Habsburg dynasties. The jewel now loosening from the Spanish imperial crown was the Dutch United Provinces – broadly, the northern area of today’s Netherlands. Since the end of their truce with Spain in 1621, the Dutch had been fighting once again for independence; their wealthy towns, with their enterprising immigrant populations, progressive administration, and advanced banking systems, had become a trading and financial nexus for Europe and far beyond. Such a prize the Spanish empire, long d
eclining, could not afford to lose. The Spaniards hoped that combined Habsburg forces might seize the ports along the coast of northern Germany; from there, a strengthened Austrian-Spanish navy could control the Baltic Sea, cutting off the Dutch from the rich trade that was financing their military resistance.

  The Austrian Habsburgs responded as their Spanish cousins had hoped. In April 1627, the Emperor Ferdinand II conferred on his general, Count Wallenstein, the title of Generalissimo of the Baltic and Open Seas. The new Generalissimo was already in control of several territories in northern Germany, and by November he had installed himself in the Baltic port of Wismar, where he set to work to build up the imperial navy. In the same month, Gustav Adolf wrote anxiously to his Chancellor Axel Oxenstierna: ‘The popish league comes closer and closer to us. They have by force subjugated a great part of Denmark, whence we must apprehend that they may press on to our borders, if they be not powerfully resisted in good time.’5 The Chancellor agreed. Imperial forces had by now captured the whole of mainland Denmark, and the Danish King had been forced to retreat to his nearby islands. From Denmark an attack might easily be launched against Sweden itself, on its own territory. The situation, Oxenstierna remarked, ‘makes my hair stand on end’.

  In January 1628, a secret committee of the Swedish Senate agreed to an invasion of the Emperor’s German lands if the King should deem it necessary. A pre-emptive attack, to draw the imperial forces away from their present too threatening position, had been Gustav Adolf’s own suggestion. In the face of the Habsburg threat, Poland was demoted to a secondary enemy, and Oxenstierna was accordingly dispatched to conclude a peace in the east, so that Swedish forces might be deployed elsewhere. After almost two years of negotiating, and twelve years of war, the Poles agreed to a truce.6 Since their king, Sigismund III, would not renounce his claim to the Swedish throne, a real peace remained elusive, but for Gustav Adolf a halt to the actual fighting was for now just as useful. It was an opportune moment for the Swedes to become involved at last in the great conflict which had been gathering pace in the Habsburg lands for more than a decade already. Protestant Germany had found no champion, and many exiled voices were calling for Swedish help. Now the armistice with Poland released thousands of battle-hardened men, ready for active service elsewhere.

  Gustav Adolf’s decision met with loud applause from the Dutch; they had their Baltic trade to protect. But they were not the only power to welcome the idea of a Swedish march against the Empire. The French encouraged it, too, and promised to assist with subsidies; Catholic France was no friend to Catholic Austria, and Richelieu had hopes of using the Swedes as a pawn in his own ongoing game against the Emperor. But his terms were unacceptable to Gustav Adolf, and towards the end of 1629, preferring to find other allies, the King sent his own emissaries to the various courts and free cities of Europe; all returned empty-handed. The German Protestant princes, who had most to gain by a Swedish invasion, also declined to help, for by the same invasion, or so they feared, they also had most to lose.

  Sweden was a small country, with not many more than a million souls. Despite many recent reforms initiated by the King and his able Chancellor, it was still poor, with commerce and industry struggling to develop, and the state coffers empty after years of war by land and sea. It could not afford to fight alone against the resourceful Habsburg Empire. Bereft of allies, Gustav Adolf hesitated. Then, paradoxically, the very lack of money which had stayed his hand now forced it. In Prussia, squadrons of German cavalry who had fought for him against the Poles stood waiting; they were mercenaries, and, though their Polish campaign was over, they could not be disbanded, for there was no money to pay them off. If they were kept in service, payment could be delayed, and so it was decided. The cavalry would be sent to Pomerania, now occupied by imperial troops, and there the rest of the Swedish army would join them.

  The forces ranged against the Swedes were led by the Czech Count Wallenstein and General Count Tilly, the latter a Dutch nobleman and a professional soldier, a Jesuit manqué whose devotion to the Virgin Mary and strict personal morality had earned him the epithet of ‘the monk in armour’.7 Wallenstein, though he led his own armies, was neither by nature nor by training a military man. Modestly born, through an advantageous marriage and the cheap purchase of no fewer than 66 estates confiscated from the defeated Bohemian rebels a few years before, he had become one of the wealthiest men in Europe. He was consequently able to raise and pay large armies of his own, and owing to his administrative brilliance, to keep them fully supplied as well.8

  The imperial forces needed Wallenstein, but at this crucial point, unwisely, they let him go. Flush with recent Catholic victories, in March 1629, the Emperor Ferdinand had declared an Edict of Restitution, whereby Protestant worship was to be banned, and the Catholic powers were to reclaim all lands acquired by Protestants since the Peace of Augsburg in 1555, almost 75 years before. It was an extravagant order which looked, even then, impossible to carry out. The areas in question were huge, and it seemed that there were not even enough potential Catholic landowners to claim them. Many leading Catholics opposed the Edict, among them Wallenstein himself. He had in fact been brought up as a Lutheran, and although in his youth he had converted to Catholicism, the armies he now maintained were full of Protestant soldiers. His protest against the Edict was met by his swift dismissal from the imperial forces, who were now to be commanded by Tilly.

  The Emperor’s Catholic allies were delighted. They had resented Wallenstein’s swift climb to power, suspecting that Ferdinand was little more than a pawn in the Count’s ambitious hands. But they were soon to regret his departure, for as he went so too did his men, along with many thousands of other imperial soldiers who had also been paid with his money, and fed, clothed, mounted, and armed through his superbly organized lines of supply. In due course Wallenstein would return, but now, to the Emperor’s dismay, the gap left on the battlefields by the armies of his former ally was filled by those of a new and fearsome enemy, Gustav Adolf, the King of Sweden.

  The Swedes pressed inland, and on a hot and windy day in the September of 1631, they drew up at Breitenfeld, near the Saxon city of Leipzig, where imperial forces commanded by Tilly were already waiting. At the eleventh hour, the wavering Elector of Saxony, Johann Georg, had thrown in his lot with the Swedes; his own land was now at stake, and he had arrived to do battle himself at the head of his ranks of young noblemen, with their new-polished armour and their gaily coloured cloaks – ‘a cheerful and beautiful company to see,’ said Gustav Adolf, and so indeed they must have seemed by comparison with his own hardbitten men in their torn and dusty outfits.

  Tilly’s forces had begun to fire as soon as their opponents came into sight, but the imperial general, despite his great experience, was soon disconcerted by the novel ‘chessboard’ manoeuvres of the Swedes, whose agile little squares of alternating cavalry and infantry swivelled to fire in all directions, easily outmanoeuvring Tilly’s traditional forward-facing lines.9 Despite a dazzling sun against them, and despite the hasty departure of the frightened Saxon Elector and most of his novice troops, the Swedes achieved a resounding victory, in no small part due to the brilliant planning and indefatigable energy of their own remarkable King.10

  And by morning, of the host of imperial soldiers who had survived the battle only to be taken prisoner by the Swedes, many thousands had enlisted in the service of their yesterday’s foe. After the Battle of Breitenfeld, mercenaries from all parts of Europe flocked to the Swedish standard. By 1632, as well as substantial forces in Prussia and the Baltic, on the seas and at home on Swedish territory, Gustav Adolf had some 120,000 men fighting in the German lands. Of his great army, perhaps one-tenth were native Swedes. The remainder, mostly mercenaries, were drawn from east to west: Finns and Germans, Scotsmen, English and Irish, Frenchmen, Dutchmen, Czechs and Poles and Russians, their motives for fighting as varied as their origins.

  The fortunes of war of the Emperor Ferdinand were now at their lowest e
bb. The Swedes’ position seemed unassailable. At this point, Gustav Adolf could have offered a peace settlement, but he chose to fight on, expanding his territories and claiming hesitant allies among the German princes, both Protestant and Catholic. In the spring of 1632, his soldiers cut a triumphal path through southern Germany towards Bavaria. In early April they crossed the Danube river, leaving in their wake a devastated countryside from which no pursuing army might take sustenance. By the middle of May they stood at the gates of Munich, where they met with no resistance; a huge ransom had purchased the safety of the city and its people. From Munich, Gustav Adolf hoped to entice the Emperor’s forces into battle, and then to march on the imperial capital of Vienna.

  On the Bohemian border, the Generalissimo Wallenstein waited with his own army. He had himself raised it, equipped it, and paid it, but as yet he refused to lead it into battle. Since his dismissal from the imperial command, he had ignored all attempts to reinstate him, but now it seemed that the price he demanded to do so was about to be paid. The price was enormous: absolute control over the imperial armies and over all peace treaties, huge areas of Habsburg lands, and the title of Elector.11 But, with Gustav Adolf nearing Vienna, the desperate Emperor conceded everything.

  His extravagant terms agreed, Wallenstein moved his army into Prague itself, barring the Swedish army’s way to Vienna. The King’s allies wavered, and in June a hesitant Gustav Adolf withdrew to Nuremberg. There, over the next few days, he revealed his plan for the future of Germany. The lands of the Holy Roman Empire were to be completely reorganized. The power of the Habsburg dynasty would be broken, and a new, dominant body of Protestant princes, the Corpus Evangelicorum, would take its place under an elected president, Gustav Adolf himself. The ban on Protestant worship was to be withdrawn, and religious toleration practised throughout the Empire. Peace would be maintained by a strong standing army.