Book Read Free

No Contest: The Case Against Competition

Page 40

by Alfie Kohn


  Cratty, Bryant J. Social Psychology in Athletics. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1981.

  Crockenberg, Susan B., Brenda K. Bryant, and Lee S. Wilce. “The Effects of Cooperatively and Competitively Structured Learning Environments on Inter- and Intrapersonal Behavior.” Child Development 47 (1976): 386–96.

  Crutchfield, Will. “The Ills of Piano Competitions.” New York Times, 16 May 1985: C25.

  Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly. Beyond Boredom and Anxiety: The Experience of Play in Work and Games. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1975a.

  ——. “Play and Intrinsic Rewards.” Journal of Humanistic Psychology 15 (1975h): 41–63.

  Culbertson, John M. Competition, Constructive and Destructive. Madison, Wis.: Twenty-first Century Press, 1985.

  Culotta, Elizabeth. “The Calculus of Education Reform.” Science 255 (1992): 1060–62.

  Cummings, William K. Education and Equality in Japan. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1980.

  Currie, Elliott. Confronting Crime: An American Challenge. New York: Pantheon, 1985.

  Darwin, Charles. The Origin of Species. London: John Murray, 1859.

  Davidson, Henry A. “Competition, the Cradle of Anxiety.” Education 76 (1955): 162–66.

  Dawes, Robyn M., Jeanne McTavish, and Harriet Shaklee. “Behavior, Communication, and Assumptions About Other People’s Behavior in a Commons Dilemma Situation.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 35 (1977): 1–11.

  Dawkins, Richard. The Selfish Gene. New York: Oxford University Press, 1976.

  Deci, Edward L. “Effects of Externally Mediated Rewards on Intrinsic Motivation.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 18 (1971): 105–15.

  ——. “Intrinsic Motivation, Extrinsic Reinforcement, and Inequity.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 22 (1972): 113–20.

  Deci, Edward L., Gregory Betley, James Kahle, Linda Abrams, and Joseph Porac. “When Trying to Win: Competition and Intrinsic Motivation.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 7 (1981): 79–83.

  Deci, Edward L., and Richard M. Ryan. Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination in Human Behavior. New York: Plenum, 1985.

  Derber, Charles. The Pursuit of Attention: Power and Individualism in Everyday Life. New York: Oxford University Press, 1983.

  Deutsch, Morton. “A Critical Review of ‘Equity Theory’: An Alternative Perspective on the Social Psychology of Justice.” International Journal of Group Tensions 9 (1979a): 20–49.

  ——. Distributive Justice: A Social-Psychological Perspective. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985.

  ——. “Education and Distributive Justice: Some Reflections on Grading Systems.” American Psychologist 34 (1979b): 391–401.

  ——. The Resolution of Conflict: Constructive and Destructive Processes. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1973.

  Deutsch, Morton, and Robert M. Krauss. “The Effect of Threat Upon Interpersonal Bargaining.” Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 61 (1960): 181–89.

  DeVoe, Marianne W. “Cooperation as a Function of Self-Concept, Sex and Race.” Educational Research Quarterly 2 (1977): 3–8.

  Diamant, Anita. “The Women’s Sports Revolution: Change for the Better? Or Only for the Best?” The Real Paper, 24 March 1979: 20–21, 24–25.

  Directory of Intentional Communities: A Guide to Cooperative Living. 2d ed. Evansville, Ind.: Fellowship for Intentional Community, 1991.

  Dishon, Dee, and Pat Wilson O’Leary. “Tips for Heterogeneous Group Selection.” Cooperative Learning, October 1991: 42–43.

  Doig, Stephen. “Ecology May Never Be the Same After Daniel Simberloff.” Science Digest, June 1984: 17.

  Doise, Willem. “The Development of Individual Competencies through Social Interaction.” In Children Helping Children, edited by Hugh C. Foot, Michelle J. Morgan, and Rosalyn H. Shute. Chichester, England: John Wiley and Sons, 1990.

  Dollard, John, Neal E. Miller, Leonard W. Doob, O. H. Mowrer, and Robert R. Sears. Frustration and Aggression. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1939.

  Dostoevsky, Fyodor. The Brothers Karamazov. Translated by Constance Garnett. Revised and edited by Ralph E. Matlaw. New York: Norton, 1976.

  Duda, Joan L. “The Relationship Between Goal Perspectives, Persistence, and Behavioral Intensity Among Male and Female Recreational Sport Participants.” Leisure Sciences 10 (1988): 95–106.

  Dunn, Robert E., and Morton Goldman. “Competition and Noncompetition in Relationship to Satisfaction and Feelings Toward Own-group and Nongroup Members.” Journal of Social Psychology 68 (1966): 229–311.

  Edwards, Harry. Sociology of Sport. Homewood, 111.: Dorsey Press, 1973.

  Eggerman, Richard W. “Competition as a Mixed Good.” The Humanist, July/ August 1982: 48–51.

  Eichenbaum, Luise, and Susie Orbach. Understanding Women: A Feminist Psychoanalytic Approach. New York: Basic, 1983.

  Eifermann, Rivka R. “Social Play in Childhood.” In Child’s Play, edited by R. E. Herron and Brian Sutton-Smith. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1971.

  Eitzen, D. Stanley, ed. Sport and Contemporary Society: An Anthology. New York: St. Martin’s, 1979.

  Elleson, Vera J. “Competition: A Cultural Imperative.” The Personnel and Guidance Journal, December 1983: 195–98.

  Ellis, M. J. Why People Play. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1973.

  Ellis, Susan S. “Introducing Cooperative Learning.” Educational Leadership, December 1989/January 1990: 34–37.

  Estrich, Susan. “Let the Mud Fly." New York Times, 20 March 1992: A33.

  Etzioni, Amitai. “After Watergate—What?: A Social Science Perspective.” Human Behavior, November 1973: 7–9.

  Evans, Richard I. “A Conversation with Konrad Lorenz.” Psychology Today, November 1974: 82–93.

  Faber, Adele, and Elaine Mazlish. Siblings Without Rivalry. New York: Norton, 1987.

  Farber, Leslie H. “Merchandising Depression.” Psychology Today, April 1979: 63–64.

  Festinger, Leon. “A Theory of Social Comparison Processes.” Human Relations 7 (1954): 117–40.

  Fishman, Pamela. “Interaction: The Work Women Do.” Social Problems 25 (1978): 397–406.

  Fiske, Edward B. “Japan’s Schools Stress Group and Discourage Individuality.” New York Times, 11 July 1983: A1, A6.

  Fleming, Anne Taylor. “Women and the Spoils of Success.” New York Times Magazine, 2 August 1981: 30–31.

  Flew, Anthony. “From Is to Ought.” In The Sociobiology Debate, edited by Arthur L. Caplan. New York: Harper Sc Row, 1978.

  Foot, Hugh C., Rosalyn H. Shute, Michelle J. Morgan, and Anne-Marie Barron. “Theoretical Issues in Peer Tutoring.” In Children Helping Children, edited by Hugh C. Foot, Michelle J. Morgan, and Rosalyn H. Shute. Chichester, England: John Wiley and Sons, 1990.

  Ford, Gerald R. “In Defense of the Competitive Urge.” Sports Illustrated, 8 July 1974: 16–23.

  Foster, Gerald W., and John E. Penick. “Creativity in a Group Setting.” Journal of Research in Science Teaching 22 (1985): 89–98.

  Frank, Lawrence K. “The Cost of Competition.” Plan Age 6 (1940): 314–24.

  Frank, Robert H. Choosing the Right Pond: Human Behavior and the Quest for Status. New York: Oxford University Press, 1985.

  Frankel, Marvin E. Partisan Justice. New York: Hill and Wang, 1980.

  ——. “The Search for Truth: An Umpireal View.” University of Pennsylvania Law Review 123 (1975): 1031–59.

  Fraser, Laura. “Super Bowl Violence Comes Home.” Psychology Today, January 1987: 15.

  Freud, Anna. Normality and Pathology in Childhood: Assessments of Development. New York: International Universities Press, 1965.

  Freud, Sigmund. Civilization and Its Discontents. Translated by James Strachey. New York: Norton, 1961.

  Friedenberg, Edgar Z. R. D. Laing. New York: Viking, 1974.

  Fromm, Erich. Escape from Freedom. 1941. Reprint. New York: Avon, 1965.

  ——. Man for Himself: An Inquiry into the
Psychology of Ethics. 1947. Reprint. Greenwich, Conn.: Fawcett Premier, 1970.

  Fultz, Jim, C. Daniel Batson, Victoria A. Furtenbach, Patricia M. McCarthy, and Laurel L. Varney. “Social Evaluation and the Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 50 (1986): 761–69.

  Gardner, Howard. Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences. New York: Basic, 1983.

  Gaskell, George, and Robert Pearton. “Aggression and Sport.” In Sports, Games, and Play: Social and Psychological Viewpoints, edited by Jeffrey H. Goldstein. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1979.

  Gaylin, Willard. The Rage Within: Anger in Modern Life. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1984.

  Gelb, Steven A. “On Being Cooperative in Noncooperative Places.” Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Studies Association, Chicago, October 1989.

  Gilbert, Bil. “Competition: Is It What Life’s All About?” Sports Illustrated, 16 May 1988: 86–100.

  Gilligan, Carol. In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women’s Development. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1982.

  Glasser, William. Schools Without Failure. New York: Harper & Row, 1969.

  Goldman, Irving. “The Bathonga of South Africa.” In Cooperation and Competition Among Primitive Peoples, edited by Margaret Mead. Boston: Beacon, 1961.

  ——. “The Zuñi Indians of New Mexico.” In Cooperation and Competition Among Primitive Peoples, edited by Margaret Mead. Boston: Beacon, 1961.

  Goldman, Morton, Joseph W. Stockbauer, and Timothy G. McAuliffe. “Intergroup and Intragroup Competition and Cooperation.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 13 (1977): 81–88.

  Goleman, Daniel. “Great Altruists: Science Ponders Soul of Goodness.” New York Times, 5 March 1985: C1—2.

  Gonzales, Lawrence. “Airline Safety: A Special Report.” Playboy, July 1980: 140–42, 148, 150, 205–22.

  Good, Thomas L., Barbara J. Reys, Douglas A. Grouws, and Catherine M. Mulryan. “Using Work-Groups in Mathematics Instruction.” Educational Leadership, December 1989/January 1990: 56–62.

  Goodlad, John I. A Place Called School: Prospects for the Future. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1984.

  Gordon, David M. “Do We Need to Be No. 1?” The Atlantic, April 1986: 100–108.

  Gorney, Roderic. “Cultural Determinants of Achievement, Aggression, and Psychological Distress." Archives of General Psychiatry 37 (1980): 452–59.

  ——. The Human Agenda. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1972.

  Gould, Stephen Jay. “Biological Potential vs. Biological Determinism.” In The Sociobiology Debate, edited by Arthur L. Caplan. New York: Harper & Row, 1978.

  ——. “The Nonscience of Human Nature.” In Ever Since Darwin: Reflections in Natural History. New York: Norton, 1977.

  Graves, Nancy B., and Theodore D. Graves. “Creating a Cooperative Learning Environment: An Ecological Approach.” In Learning to Cooperate, Cooperating to Learn, edited by Robert Slavin et al. New York: Plenum, 1985.

  ——. “Should We Teach Cooperative Skills as a Part of Each Cooperative Lesson?” Cooperative Learning, October 1989: 19–20.

  ——. “Sue Smith: The Child Development Project in Action.” Cooperative Learning, March 1990: 10–14.

  Green, Joan, and John Myers. “Conversations: Observations on the Implementation of Interactive Learning.” In Perspectives on Small Group Learning: Theory and Practice, edited by Mark Brubacher, Ryder Payne, and Kemp Rickett. Oakville, Ontario: Rubicon Publishing, 1990.

  Green, Mark, and John F. Berry. “Corporate Crime II.” The Nation, 15 June 1985: 731–34.

  Gross, Jane. “Against the Odds: A Woman’s Ascent on Wall Street.” New York Times Magazine, 6 January 1985: 16–27, 55, 60, 68.

  Grossack, Martin M. “Some Effects of Cooperation and Competition Upon Small Group Behavior.” Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 49 (1954): 341–48.

  Haines, Donald Bruce, and W. J. McKeachie. “Cooperative Versus Competitive Discussion Methods in Teaching Introductory Psychology.” Journal of Educational Psychology 58 (1967): 386–90.

  Haley, Jay. “The Art of Being a Failure as a Therapist.” In The Power Tactics of Jesus Christ and Other Essays. New York: Avon, 1969.

  Halliwell, Wayne. “Instrinsic Motivation in Sport.” In Sport Psychology: An Analysis of Athlete Behavior, edited by William F. Straub. Ithaca, N.Y.: Movement Publications, 1978.

  Hardin, Garrett. Promethean Ethics: Living with Death, Competition, and Triage. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1980.

  ——. “The Tragedy of the Commons.” Science, 13 December 1968: 1243–48.

  Harragan, Betty Lehan. Games Mother Never Taught You: Corporate Gamesmanship for Women. New York: Warner, 1978.

  Harrington, Michael. The New American Poverty. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1984.

  Harvey, John, J. St. G. C. Heath, Malcolm Spencer, William Temple, and H. G. Wood. Competition: A Study in Human Motive. London: Macmillan and Co., 1917.

  Hechinger, Fred. “Experts Call a Child’s Play Too Serious to Be Left to Adults.” New York Times, 21 October 1980: C4.

  Heller, Joseph. Something Happened. New York: Ballantine, 1975.

  Helmreich, Robert L. “Pilot Selection and Training.” Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Psychological Association, Washington, D.C., August 1982.

  Helmreich, Robert L., William Beane, G. William Lucker, and Janet T. Spence. “Achievement Motivation and Scientific Attainment.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 4 (1978): 222–26.

  Helmreich, Robert L., Linda L. Sawin, and Alan L. Carsrud. “The Honeymoon Effect in Job Performance: Temporal Increases in the Predictive Power of Achievement Motivation.” Journal of Applied Psychology 71 (1986): 185–88.

  Helmreich, Robert L., Janet T. Spence, William E. Beane, G. William Lucker, and Karen A. Matthews. “Making It in Academic Psychology: Demographic and Personality Correlates of Attainment.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 39 (1980): 896–908.

  Hendin, Herbert. The Age of Sensation: A Psychoanalytic Exploration. New York: Norton, 1975.

  ——. Suicide in America. New York: Norton, 1983.

  Henry, Jules. Culture Against Man. New York: Vintage, 1963.

  Herman, Ellen. “Toward a Politics of Self-Esteem?” Z Magazine, July-August 1991: 42–46.

  Hewstone, Miles. Attribution Theory: Social and Functional Extensions. Oxford, England: Basil Blackwell, 1983.

  Hierta, Ebba. Building Cooperative Societies: A Curriculum Guide for Grades 6–9 on Social and Economic Cooperation. Ann Arbor: Michigan Alliance of Cooperatives, 1984.

  Hinds, Michael deCourcy. “Private Schools: The First Steps.” New York Times, 14 November 1984: C1.

  Hirsch, Fred. Social Limits to Growth. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1976.

  Hoch, Paul. Rip Off the Big Game: The Exploitation of Sports by the Power Elite. Garden City, N.Y.: Anchor Books, 1972.

  Hoffman, Martin L. “Is Altruism Part of Human Nature?” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 40 (1981): 121–37.

  Hofstadter, Douglas R. “Irrationality Is the Square Root of All Evil.” 1983. Reprinted in Metamagical Themas: Questing for the Essence of Mind and Pattern. New York: Basic, 1985.

  Hofstadter, Richard. Social Darwinism in American Thought. Revised edition. Boston: Beacon, 1955.

  Holland, Bernard. “The Well-Tempered Tenor.” New York Times Magazine, 30 January 1983: 28–29, 44–45, 51-54.

  Holt, John. How Children Fail. Revised edition. New York: Delacorte, 1982.

  Horn, Jack C. “Fan Violence: Fighting the Injustice of It All.” Psychology Today, October 1975: 30–31.

  Horner, Matina S. “Femininity and Successful Achievement: A Basic Inconsistency.” In Feminine Personality and Conflict, edited by Judith M. Bard-wick et al. Belmont, Calif.: Brooks/Cole, 1970.

  ——. “The Measurement and Behavioral Implications of Fear of Success in Wome
n.” In Motivation and Achievement, edited by John W. Atkinson and Joel O. Raynor. Washington, D.C.: V. H. Winston and Sons, 1974a.

  ——. “Performance of Men in Noncompetitive and Interpersonal Competitive Achievement-Oriented Situations.” In Motivation and Achievement, edited by John W. Atkinson and Joel O. Raynor. Washington, D.C.: V. H. Winston and Sons, 1974b.

  ——. “Sex Differences in Achievement Motivation and Performance in Competitive and Noncompetitive Situations.” Ph.D. dissertation, University of Michigan, 1968.

  Horney, Karen. “Culture and Neurosis.” 1936. Reprinted in Theories of Psychopathology and Personality, edited by Theodore Millon. 2d ed. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 1973.

  ——. Neurosis and Human Growth: The Struggle Toward Self-Realization. New York: Norton, 1950.

  ——. The Neurotic Personality of Our Time. New York: Norton, 1937.

  Howe, Alan. “A Climate for Small Group Talk.” In Perspectives on Small Group Learning: Theory and Practice, edited by Mark Brubacher, Ryder Payne, and Kemp Rickett. Oakville, Ontario: Rubicon Publishing, 1990.

  Huizinga, Johan. Homo Ludens: A Study of the Play Element in Culture. Reprint. Boston: Beacon, 1955.

  Hymowitz, Carol. “Five Main Reasons Why Managers Fail.” Wall Street Journal, 2 May 1988: 27.

  Jacoby, Russell. Social Amnesia: A Critique of Contemporary Psychology from Adler to Laing. Boston: Beacon, 1975.

  Jahoda, Marie. Current Concepts of Positive Mental Health. New York: Basic, 1958.

  Jiu, Haibin. “Science Contest Pressures Kids Too Much.” New York Times, 19 February 1992: A20.

  Johnson, David W., and Brenda Bryant. “Cooperation and Competition in the Classroom.” Elementary School Journal 74 (1973): 172–81.

  Johnson, David W., and Roger T. Johnson. Cooperation and Competition: Theory and Research. Edina, Minn.: Interaction Book Co., 1989.

  ——. “Instructional Goal Structure: Cooperative, Competitive, or Individualistic.” Review of Educational Research 44 (1974): 213–40.

 

‹ Prev