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territory.
A new phase of history had begun in Nubia too. King Nastasen (335–315
BCE) was the final Kushite king to be buried at Nuri, and also commis-
sioned the last Kushite royal inscription using Egyptian hieroglyphs. Within War and Trade with the Pharaohs.indd 177
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178 War and Trade with the Pharaohs
fifty years of his death, Kushite royal burials had moved from the region of Napata to Meroe, between the Fifth and Sixth Cataracts of the Nile, marking the end of the Napatan Period and the start of the Meroitic Period. This was a phase of fifty-seven kings, and a number of ruling queens, that lasted until around AD 350. The Meroites wrote in Meroitic (a writing system still not fully deciphered), introduced Kushite gods into their pantheon – such as the lion god Apedemak, often associated with warfare – and enjoyed good relations with the Ptolemies to the north. Exotic goods flowed between the two civilizations: in a palace storeroom at Wad Ben Naqa, archaeologists discovered stockpiles of ebony and ivory, probably meant for export; and the Treasury of Sanam was filled with elephant tusks. Traders carried wine, olive oil, and honey to Meroe from Egypt, along with ceramics and metalwork from across the Mediterranean world. The Meroites and Ptolemies
also jointly built temples at Dakka – between the First and Second Cataracts
– and on Philae Island at Aswan.
A new era of cultural interactions had begun across Nubia and Egypt,
the Levant, and the wider eastern Mediterranean world. Just as in the preceding millennia, there would be wars, diplomacy, trade, and travel. People would interact, sharing technology and ideas. There would be innovations, and religious developments, great ideas realized and great ideas forgotten.
Over successive centuries, the Ptolemaic Kingdom, the Meroitic Kushites, and the Seleucid Empire would interact, expand, contract, and end, their experiences always intertwined. And then would come the Romans.
But this is a story for another time.
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Endnotes
Chapter 2: Building Foreign Relations (and Pyramids) (2584–2117 BCE) 1. Author’s translation. For the scene, see Borchardt, L. (1913) Das Grabdenkmal des Königs Sahu-re, Band II: Die Wandbilder. Leipzig: J.C Hinrichs: pls. 12
and 13.
2. Author’s translation. For the hieroglyphic text, see Sethe, K. (1933) Urkunden des Alten Reichs. Leipzig: J.C. Hinrichs: 130, 7-15.
Chapter 3: A Country Divided (2117–2066 BCE)
1. Translation from Manetho, Aegyptiaca. Translated by Waddell, W.G. (1940) Manetho, With An English Translation by W.G. Waddell. London: Heinemann: 61 (Fr 27).
2. Author’s translation. For the hieroglyphic text, see Vandier, J. (1950) Mo’alla: la tombe d’Ankhtifi et la tombe de Sébekhotep. Cairo: Imprimerie de l’Institut français d’archéologie orientale: 185-186.
3. Author’s translation. For the hieroglyphic text, see Vandier, J. (1950) Mo’alla: la tombe d’Ankhtifi et la tombe de Sébekhotep. Cairo: Imprimerie de l’Institut français d’archéologie orientale: 163.
4. Translation after Lichtheim, M. (1973) Ancient Egyptian Literature. Vol. I.
Berkeley: University of California Press: 90.
Chapter 4: An Expanding World (2066–1781 BCE)
1. Author’s translation. For the original hieroglyphic text, see Newberry, P.E.
(1893) Beni Hasan, Part I. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner and co.
Pl. 26, lines 157-158. My translation closely follows Allen, J.P. (2008) The Historical Inscription of Khnumhotep at Dahshur: Preliminary Report.
Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 352: 29.
2. Authors’ translation. For the original hieroglyphic text, see: Sethe, K.
(1928) Aegyptische Lesestücke zum Gebrauch im akademischen Unterricht: Texte des mittleren Reiches (2nd edition). Leipzig: J.C. Hinrichs: 84, 3-4.
Chapter 5: The Hyksos and the Kermans: Their Rise and Fall
(1781–1549 BCE)
1. Author’s translation. For the original hieroglyphic text, see Helck, W. (1975) Historisch-biographische Texte der 2. Zwischenzeit und neue Texte der 18.
Dynastie. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz: 81, 4.
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180 War and Trade with the Pharaohs
2. Author’s translation. For the original hieroglyphic text, see Helck, W. (1975) Historisch-biographische Texte der 2. Zwischenzeit und neue Texte der 18.
Dynastie. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz: 80, 9-11.
3. Author’s translation. For the original hieroglyphic text, see Helck, W. (1975) Historisch-biographische Texte der 2. Zwischenzeit und neue Texte der 18.
Dynastie. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz: 45, 16-19.
4. Translation after Simpson, W.K. et al. (2003) The Literature of Ancient Egypt.
Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press: 346.
Chapter 6: Meeting the Mitanni and Assimilating Kush
(1549–1388 BCE)
1. Translation after Shaw, I. (1991) Egyptian Warfare and Weapons. Princes Risborough: Shire Publications: 41-42.
2. Author’s translation. For the original hieroglyphic text, see: Sethe, K.
(1904-1909) Urkunden der 18. dynastie. Leipzig: J.C. Hinrichs: 324, 8-12.
3. Author’s translation. For the original hieroglyphic text, see: Sethe, K.
(1904-1909) Urkunden der 18. dynastie. Leipzig: J.C. Hinrichs: 657.
4. Author’s translation. For the original hieroglyphic text, see: Sethe, K.
(1904-1909) Urkunden der 18. dynastie. Leipzig: J.C. Hinrichs: 657, 16 - 658, 2.
5. Author’s translation. For the original hieroglyphic text, see: Sethe, K.
(1904-1909) Urkunden der 18. dynastie. Leipzig: J.C. Hinrichs: 660.
6. Author’s translation. For the original hieroglyphic text, see: Sethe, K.
(1904-1909) Urkunden der 18. dynastie. Leipzig: J.C. Hinrichs: 700, 12-14.
7. Author’s translation. For the original hieroglyphic text, see: Helck, W.
(1955-1958) Urkunden der 18. dynastie. Fascicles 17-22. Berlin: Akademie-Verlag: 1297, 1-1298, 2.
8. Author’s translation. For the original hieroglyphic text, see the Memphis stele in: Helck, W. (1955-1958) Urkunden der 18. dynastie. Fascicles 17-22. Berlin: Akademie-Verlag: 1304, 10-14.
9. Author’s translation. For the original hieroglyphic text, see the Memphis stele in: Helck, W. (1955-1958) Urkunden der 18. dynastie. Fascicles 17-22. Berlin: Akademie-Verlag: 1307, 6-1307, 17.
Chapter 7: Heresy and Diplomacy (1388–1298 BCE)
1. Author’s translation. For the original hieroglyphic text, see: Helck, W.
(1955-1958) Urkunden der 18. dynastie. Fascicles 17-22. Berlin: Akademie-Verlag: 1666, 3-18.
2. Translation after Bryce, T. (2003) Letters of the Great Kings of the Ancient Near East: The Royal Correspondence of the Late Bronze Age. Oxford and New York: Routledge: 179.
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Endnotes 181
Chapter 8: The Hittites and the Ramessides (1298–1187 BCE)
1. Author’s translation. For the original hieroglyphic text, see: Kitchen, K.A.
(1979) Ramesside Inscriptions: Historical and Biographical. Vol. 2. Oxford: Blackwell: 81, 13-84, 5.
2. Author’s translation. For the original hieroglyphic text, see: Kitchen, K.A.
(1979) Ramesside Inscriptions: Historical and Biographical. Vol. 2. Oxford: Blackwell: 93, 16-94, 1.
3. Author’s translation. For the original hieroglyphic text, see: Kitchen, K.A.
(1980) Ramesside Inscriptions: Historical and Biographical. Vol. 3. Oxford: Blackwell: 437, 4.
4. Author’s translation. For the original hieroglyphic text, see: Kitchen, K.A.
(1980) Ramesside Inscriptions: Historical and Biogr
aphical. Vol. 3. Oxford: Blackwell: 148, 5-7.
5. Author’s translation. For the original hieroglyphic text, see: Kitchen, K.A.
(1982) Ramesside Inscriptions: Historical and Biographical. Vol. 4. Oxford: Blackwell: 7, 7-8.
6. Author’s translation. For the original hieroglyphic text, see: Kitchen, K.A.
(1982) Ramesside Inscriptions: Historical and Biographical. Vol. 4. Oxford: Blackwell: 1, 15-2,1.
Chapter 9: Sea Peoples, Libyans, and the End of the New Kingdom
(1187–1064 BCE)
1. Translation after Pritchard, J.B. (1969) Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament, Third Edition, with Supplement. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press: 262.
2. Translation after Cline, E.H. and O’Connor, D.B. (2012) The Sea Peoples. In E.H. Cline and D. O’Connor (eds) (2012) Ramesses III: The Life and Times of Egypt’s Last Hero. Ann Arbor, Mich: University of Michigan Press: 204.
3. Translation after Cline, E.H. and O’Connor, D.B. (2012) The Sea Peoples.
In E.H. Cline and D. O’Connor (eds) (2012) Ramesses III: The Life and Times of Egypt’s Last Hero. Ann Arbor, Mich: University of Michigan Press: 204-205.
Chapter 10: Libyan Pharaohs, the Kingdom of Kush, and the Assyrian
Invasion (1064–664 BCE)
1. Translation after Lichtheim, M. (1980) Ancient Egyptian Literature. Vol. 3.
Berkeley: University of California Press: 69.
2. Translation after Kahn, D. (2004) Taharqa, King of Kush and the Assyrians.
The Journal of the Society for the Study of Egyptian Antiquities 31: 115.
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3. Translation after Kahn, D. (2006) The Assyrian Invasions of Egypt (673-663
B.C.) and the Final Expulsion of the Kushites. Studien zur Altägyptischen Kultur 34: 261.
4. Translation after Pritchard, J.B. (1969) Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament, Third Edition, with Supplement. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press: 297.
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