by Will Durant
natural style in gardens, 78, 169, 215
Naumburg, Saxony, 417
navigation, 510, 538, 549, 557, 633
Navigation Act of 1663 (England), 104
nebular hypothesis, 547
Necker, Jacques (1732–1804), 479, 640, 784
Necker, Suzanne Couchard (1739–94), 693, 752
Needham, Mother (d. 1731), 64, 219
Needham, John Turberville (1713–81), 576, 712
Negroes, 102, 103, 342, 343*, 778
Neipperg, Marshal Count Wilhelm von (1684–1774), 452
Nelson, Horatio (1758–1805), 594
neoclassical movement, 177–78, 501
“Neptunists,” 556, 557
Neri, Saint Philip (1515–95), 237
Nero, Emperor of Rome (r. 54–68), 486
Nerva, Marcus Cocceius, Emperor of Rome (r. 96–98), 347
Nesle, Adélaïde de, Duchesse de Lauraguais (1714–69), 275
Nesle, Louise de, see Mailly, Comtesse de
Nesle, Marie Anne de, see Châteauroux, Duchesse de
Nesle, Pauline Félicité de, see Vintimille, Marquise de
Netherlands, Austrian, 31, 431, 435, 453, 455, 456, 457
Netherlands, Spanish, see Netherlands, Austrian
Nette, J. F., architect (fl. 1704), 398
Neuchâtel, 475, 643, 680
Neuchâtel, Lake of, 475
Neumann, Johann Balthasar (1687–1753), 405
New Academy of Music, London, 234
Newburyport, Massachusetts, 133
New Caledonia, 559
Newcastle, Henrietta, Duchess of, nee Godolphin, 242
Newcastle, Thomas Pelham-Holles, 1st Duke of (1693–1768), 113, 245
Newcastle upon Tyne, England, 55
Newcomen, Thomas (1663–1729), 49
Neveu de Rameau, Le (Diderot), 295, 298, 650, 659–61, 665, 666, 678–79, 736, 764
New England, 51, 694
Newfoundland, 554, 559
Newgate Prison, London, 73, 132
New Hebrides Islands, 558
New Holland, see Australia
New Orleans, 13, 560
New Style, 540
Newton, Sir Isaac (1642–1727), 45, 63, 87, 100, 120, 217, 365, 507, 508, 569, 575, 584, 625, 633, 637;
his calculation of earth’s density, 553;
his calculus, 507, 508–9, 511;
Queen Caroline and, 90, 95, 214;
Clairaut and, 375, 544;
Mme. du Châtelet’s study and translation of, 211, 366, 374, 375, 379;
and electricity, 520;
is emulated in other fields, 296, 345, 581;
his funeral, 246, 370;
his influence on freethinkers, 121, 609;
and Irish coinage, 104–5;
La Mettrie on, 619;
Laplace’s application of his gravitation theory, 546–48;
and Leibniz, 507, 508–9;
Maupertuis and, 365, 514;
his optics, 375, 517, 537;
his polar-flattening theory, 552;
Pope and, 176, 619;
and precession of equinoxes, 544;
his theory of tides, 539;
Voltaire’s role in converting French scientists to, 246, 248, 369–70, 375, 378, 514, 544
Newton, Thomas (fl. 1754), bishop of London, 123
New Zealand, 559
Nibelungenlied, 477
Nice, 312
Nicene Creed, 428
Nicolaï, Marquise de (fl. 1762), 730
Nicolini (Niccolò Grimaldi; 1673?–1732?), 226, 230, 232, 234
Niebuhr, Barthold Georg (1776–1831), historian, 486, 500
Niebuhr, Carsten (1733–1815), explorer, 560
Nietzsche, Friedrich Wilhelm (1844–1900), 661
Night Thoughts on Life, Death, and Immortality (Young), 180
Nîmes, 228, 230, 305
nitrogen, 524, 525, 531, 534
Nivernois, Louis Jules Mancini Mazarini, Duc de (1716–98), 535
Noailles, Duc Adrien Maurice de (1678–1766), Maréchal, 9, 10, 276, 279, 464
Noailles, Louis Antoine, Cardinal de (1651–1729), Archbishop of Paris, 254, 257, 258
nobility (aristocracy): in Austria and Hungary, 431–32;
English, 55, 56;
French, 251–53;
German, 398, 403, 428, 437, 439;
Scottish, 107
noblesse d’épée (nobility of the sword), 8, 251–53, 340
noblesse de race, 251
noblesse de robe (nobility of the robe, hereditary magistracy), 252, 266, 340, 352, 768
Nonnotte, Abbé Claude François (1711–93), 486, 488, 756
Noon, John, London publisher, 142
Nordberg, Joran Andersson (1677–1744), 362
Norfolk Island, 559
Normandy, 18, 259, 260, 770
North Africa, 721, 722
North America, 558–60 passim
Northampton, England, 51, 52
North Briton, The, 223
North Carolina, 403
Northeast Passage, search for, 559–60
Northumberland, Pennsylvania, 530
Norway, 357
Norwich, England, 60
Notre-Dame Cathedral, Paris, 275, 308, 322, 756
Nottingham, 579
Nouveau Mémoire pour servir à l’ histoire des cacouacs (Moreau), 761
Nouvelle Héloïse, La (Rousseau), 192, 331, 335, 697
Nouvelles littéraires, 498
novelle, 188
novels: English, 187–205, 669;
French, 29–30, 324, 330–35, 337, 626–27, 657–59, 669, 672, 724–26;
picaresque, 29, 188
Noverre, Jean Georges (1727–1810), 315
Novissima Sinaica (Leibniz), 504
Numa Pompilius, legendary King of Rome (r. 715–673 B.C.), 745
numismatics, 500
Nuremberg, free city of, 397, 404
nutation of earth’s axis, 540, 544
Nymphenburg, Bavaria, 398;
secret alliance of (1741, 453
Oberammergau, Bavaria, 406
Observations on Man (Hartley), 581
Observations on the Continuous Progress of Universal Reason (Saint-Pierre), 336
Observations sur les écrits modernes (ed. Desfontaines), 760
obstetrics, 597
Ockley, Simon (1678–1720), 163–64
octant, invention of, 537–38
“Ode for St. Cecilia’s Day” (Dryden), 238
“Ode on a Distant Prospect of Eton College” (Gray), 181–82
Oder River, 451
“Ode to Evening” (Collins), 180
“Ode to Posterity” (J. B. Rousseau), 38
Odyssey (Pope’s translation), 169
Oeben, Jean François (1685–1765), 304
Oedipe (Corneille), 36
Oedipe (Voltaire), 28, 33, 36–37, 38, 328
Oedippus Tyrannus (Sophocles), 36
“Of Experience” (Montaigne), 503
Of Glandular Consumption (Russell), 80
“Of Miracles” (Hume), 116, 122, 148–49
“Of Morals” (Hume), 146–47
Oglethorpe, James Edward (1696–1785), 74–75, 130–31
Ohio River, 560
Ohrdruf, 412
Okhotsk, 558
“Old Bailey,” London, 73
Old England (periodical), 82
Oldfield, Anne (1683–1730), 329
Oldmixon, John (1673–1742), Eng. historian, 171
Old Pretender, see Stuart, James Francis Edward
Old Sarum, 68, 113, 114
“On First Looking into Chapman’s Homer” (Keats), 169
Opalińska, Katharin, wife of Stanislas Leszczyński, 273, 309
“On the Lisbon Disaster” (Voltaire), 721–23
opera: in Austria, 434–35;
in England, 183, 226, 230–37, 244;
in France, 28, 295–98, 335;
in Germany, 227–28, 398, 399, 407, 409–10, 411, 424;
<
br /> Italian, 228–29, 230–37
passim, 328*, 409–10, 434–35
Opéra, Palais-Royal, Paris, 28, 289, 295, 297, 313, 325
Opéra-Comique, Paris, 28, 325
Opera of the Nobility, London, 235–37, 240
ophthalmology, 597
Oporto, Portugal, 66
Oppeln, duchy of, 451
Oppenordt, Gilles Marie (1672–1742), 304
optics, 509, 510, 539, 541
Oracle des nouveaux philosophes, L’ (Guyon), 755
Oratorians (Fathers of the Oratory), 237, 258, 286, 341, 498, 773, 775
Orczelska, Countess, 403
Ordonnance Criminelle (France, 1670), 267
Oregon, 560
Orford, Earls of, see Walpole, Horace, and Walpole, Sir Robert
original sin, 585, 692, 706, 721, 738, 745
Origen (Orgenes Adamantius; 185?–254?), 599
Origin and Progress of Language, The (Monboddo), 579
Origny, abbess of, 256
Orkney, George Hamilton, Earl of (1666–1737), 242
Orlando (Handel), 235
Orléans, Duchesse d’: wife of Duc Philippe I, see Charlotte Elisabeth;
wife of Duc Philippe II (Regent), see Blois, Duchesse de
Orléans, Louis, Duc d’ (1703–52), son of Regent, 288, 596
Orléans, Louis Philippe, Duc d’(1725–85), 601, 674
Orléans, Louis Philippe Joseph (“Philippe Égalité”), Duc d’ see Chartres, Duc de
Orléans, Philippe I (“Monsieur”), Duc d’ (1640–1701), 6, 8, 19, 20
Orléans, Philippe II, Duc d’ Regent of France (r. 1715–23), 6–9, 16–21, 269, 303, 320, 596;
character of, 7–8, 16–18, 31;
and his daughter, 8, 20–21, 34–37 passim;
death of, 33;
his extravagance, 15, 113;
and James III, 93;
and Law’s System, 10–16
passim, 342, 344;
a patron of the arts, 24–25, 28, 311;
and poison rumors, 8, 17, 37;
his reforms and economies, 9–10, 18–19, 34, 37;
his liberality and tolerance, 8, 17–18, 21, 33, 342, 344;
a skeptic, 7, 8, 16, 17, 21, 32;
his morals and mistresses, 7–8, 10, 19–20, 21, 23, 25, 30, 31, 33, 288, 301;
and Triple Alliance, 32, 93;
Voltaire and, 17–18, 34–38
Orléans (city), 38, 532, 535
Orléans, Academy of, 498
Orléans, Maid of, see Jeanne d’Arc
Orléans, University of, 498
Oroonoko (Behn), 188
Orphelin de la Chine, L’ (Voltaire), 505
Orry, Philibert (fl. 1730–45), 270–71
Orthodox Church of Russia, 495
Osborne, Thomas (d. 1767), bookseller, 171
Osler, Sir William (1849–1919), 586
Osnabrück, 94
Osnabrück, Prince-Bishop of, see Ernest Augustus
Ospedale Bonifazio, Florence, 598
Osservazioni sulle principali malattie degli occhi (Scarpa), 587
Ostade, Adriaen van (1610–85), 25
Ostend, 278, 456
Othello (Shakespeare), 246
otology, 597
Ottobeuren Monastery, 406
Ottoboni, Pietro, Cardinal (fl. 1708), 229
Ottone (Handel), 232–33
Oudry, Jean Baptiste (1689–1755), 282, 312, 312, 315, 321
Oupanichads, Les (Anquetil-Duperron), 503
Ovid (Publius Ovidius Naso; 43 B.C.-A.D. 17), 63, 205
Oxford, 1st Earl of, see Harley, Robert
Oxford movement, 137
Oxford University, 63, 121, 129, 130, 132, 477, 539, 587;
Methodism founded at, 116, 128, 130;
Pitt the Elder at, 113;
Radcliffe Library, 216;
Shelley’s antireligious campaign at, 713
oxygen, 375, 517;
discovery of, 523–28, 533–34;
and plants, 568
Pacific islands, 57
Pacific Ocean, exploration of, 558–60
Pactum Mutuae Successionis (1703), 435, 436
Padua, University of, 586, 592
Paestum, 501
Paine, Thomas (1737–1809), 531
painting: Austrian, 434;
Diderot’s articles on, 640, 666–68;
English, 216–24;
Flemish, 25–26, 312, 668;
French, 25–28, 282, 310–22;
genre, 282, 311, 315, 317, 319;
German, 404–5;
Impressionist, 28;
landscape, 315, 668;
miniatures, 79, 306, 328;
rococo, 314
Pajou, Augustin (1730–1809), 305, 310, 322
Palaeographica graeca (Montfaucon), 501
Palais-Bourbon, Paris, 24, 307
Palais de Justice, Paris, 371
Palais-Royal, Paris, 12, 15, 295, 363, 601, 660;
Regent establishes residence in, 16;
his petits soupers in, 19;
his art collection in, 25; see also Opera, Palais-Royal
Palatinate, devastation of, 465
paleography, 501
paleontology, 554–55
Palermo, 60
Palestine, 560
Palestrina, Giovanni Pierluigi da (1526?–94), 423, 426
Paley, William (1743–1805), 715
Palissot de Monteney, Charles (1730–1814), 670, 762–65 passim
Palladian style, 215–16, 307
pantheism, 572, 626, 650, 651–62, 703, 704
Palladio, Andrea (1518–80), 165, 215
Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded (Richardson), 189–90, 191–94
passim, 197, 217, 331
Pamela in Her Exalted Condition (Richardson), 189
Panama, Isthmus of, 102–3
papacy, 40, 92, 356, 377
Papal States, 539
Papin, Denis (1637–1712), 52
Parabère, Marie Magdeleine de La Vieuville, Comtesse de (1693–1750), 20
Paradise Lost (Milton), 172, 246, 630
Paradoxe sur le comédien (Diderot), 633, 671–72
Paraguay, 351
Pare aux Cerfs, 273, 284
Pardo, Convention of the (1739), 102
Paris, François de (1690–1727), 257
Paris, 8, 22, 262–63, 294–95, 384, 398, 641;
building program in, 307;
city wall built, 535;
as cultural and social center, 83, 294–95, 298, 323, 337;
famine riot in, 262;
Frederick II on, 291;
hospitals, 589, 591–92, 597, 598;
Hume on, 159;
income tax levied in, 18;
lottery issued, 361;
Montesquieu’s description of, 263;
police of, 22, 41, 267;
population of, 55, 59, 262–63;
theaters in, 28, 30, 37, 183, 295, 325–30 passim;
Voltaire on, 357
Paris, Parlement of, 3, 256, 268, 327, 352, 532, 611;
accepts Duc d’Orléans as regent, 9;
banished (1720), 15;
at “bed of justice” (1718), 18;
burns philosophe books, 370–71, 483, 626, 681, 694, 699, 718, 737, 742, 769, 772;
and censorship, 496;
and the Encyclopédie, 642–43, 648;
suppresses Jesuits, 737, 765, 768–72;
and La Barre case, 735, 737, 772;
nun appeals to, 657–58;
and Prades affair, 638;
Voltaire attacks, 743, 744
Paris, University of, 287, 477, 498, 515, 562, 775;
Faculty of Medicine, 592, 596, 598, 600;
tuition fees paid by state, 19;
Faculty of Theology, see Sorbonne
Paris brothers, financiers, 16, 37, 265
Paris-Montmartel, Jean (1690–1766), 265
Paris Observatory, 544
parlements, 252, 256, 266, 352, 611, 7
37;
and fall of Jesuits, 759, 769–71;
and right of remonstrance, 268; see also Paris, Parlement of
Parliament, British, 61, 128, 163, 189, 499, 593;
and Act of Settlement, 89;
Bolingbroke and, 91, 100;
and Calico Act, 49;
corruption in, 58, 68, 79, 97, 98, 105, 113;
elections to, 82, 90, 93, 96, 103, 206, 210, 222;
Frederick II on, 98, 446;
adopts Gregorian calendar, 540–41;
and Ireland, 104, 105;
Jenner’s work financed by, 596;
and Licensing Act, 183;
and Maria Theresa, 452, 457;
marriage and divorce laws, 64, 65;
Montesquieu and, 344, 353;
parties in, 90–91;
grants patent rights, 50, 163, 220;
and the penal code, 72–73;
Pitt in, 114;
Priestley denounced in, 529;
and prison reform, 74;
property interests dominant in, 53, 54, 66, 73, 90, 107;
representation in, 135;
and royal prerogative, 157;
Septennial Act, 93;
its sovereignty over Hanoverian kings, 45, 89, 90, 93, 94;
and South Sea Bubble, 57–59;
subsidies to foreign rulers, 115, 452;
as supreme court, 72;
and taxation, 67, 71, 82, 98, 368;
union with Scottish Parliament, 107;
war party opposes and defeats Walpole, 99, 101–3, 109;
repeals witchcraft law, 108
Parliament, Irish, 105, 106
Parliament, Scottish, 91, 107
Parma, duchy of, 278, 785
Parma, Duke of, see Philip, Duke of Parma
Parsees, 502–3
Partenope (Handel), 234
parthenogenesis, 578
Partridge, John (1644–1715), 759
Pascal, Blaise (1623–62), 173, 256, 292, 340, 400, 543;
atmospheric-pressure experiments of, 551;
Provincial Letters of, 767;
Voltaire and, 370, 371, 723, 750
Pasquier, Councilor (d. 1794), 735
Passion according to St. Matthew, The (Bach), 234, 416, 425–26, 427, 430
Passy, 322
Pasteur, Louis (1822–95), 576
Pastorales (Fontenelle), 37
Pastorals (Pope), 165
Pastor Fido, 11 (Handel), 230
patents, see monopolies
Pater, Jean Baptiste (1695–1736), 25, 28
Pau, 310
Pau, Parlement of, 770
Paul, Saint (d. 67), 123, 529, 742, 745, 746, 768
Paul III (Alessandro Farnese), Pope (r. 1534–49), 765
Paul, Grand Duke, later Paul I, Czar of Russia (r. 1796–1801), 596
Paul, Lewis (fl. 1738), inventor of first spinning machine, 49, 51, 52
Paul et Virginie (Bernardin), 335
Pavia, University of, 523, 587, 592
Pearce, Bishop, 123
peasantry: English, 45–48, 62, 135;
French, 13, 22, 252–53, 258–61, 268, 271, 286–92