The History of Jihad: From Muhammad to ISIS

by Robert Spencer

  PERSECUTION IS WORSE THAN SLAUGHTER

  In Medina, the Muslims did not take up farming or become merchants; they began raiding Quraysh caravans. Muhammad himself led many of the raids.

  Muhammad once sent out one of his most trusted lieutenants, Abdullah bin Jahsh, along with eight of the emigrants (muhajiroun)—that is, the Muslims who had left Mecca for Medina with Muhammad, as opposed to the ansar, the helpers, who became Muslim in Medina—and instructions to lie in wait for a Quraysh caravan at Nakhla, between Mecca and Al-Ta’if.

  Abdullah and his band obeyed, but once they finally spotted a caravan of Quraysh carrying leather and raisins, it was too late: it was the last day of the sacred month of Rajab, when fighting was forbidden. If, however, they waited for the sacred month to end, the caravan would make it safely back to Mecca.

  They decided ultimately, according to Ibn Ishaq, to “kill as many as they could of them and take what they had.” On the way home to Medina, Abdullah set aside a fifth of the booty for Muhammad. However, when they returned to the Muslim camp, Muhammad refused to share in the loot or to have anything to do with them, saying only: “I did not order you to fight in the sacred month.” He was put in a politically uncomfortable position as well, for the Quraysh began to say: “Muhammad and his companions have violated the sacred month, shed blood therein, taken booty, and captured men.”6

  But then a helpful revelation came from Allah, explaining that the Quraysh’s opposition to Muhammad was worse than the Muslims’ violation of the sacred month, and therefore the raid was justified:

  They ask you about the sacred month—about fighting therein. Say, “Fighting therein is great sin, but averting people from the way of Allah and disbelief in Him and al-Masjid al-Haram and the expulsion of its people therefrom are worse in the sight of Allah. And fitnah [disturbance, persecution] is greater than killing.” (Qur’an 2:217)

  Whatever sin the Nakhla raiders had committed in violating the sacred month was nothing compared to the Quraysh’s fitnah. Ibn Ishaq explained: “They have kept you back from the way of God with their unbelief in Him, and from the sacred mosque, and have driven you from it when you were with its people. This is a more serious matter with God than the killing of those whom you have slain.”7

  Once he received this revelation, Muhammad took the booty and prisoners that Abdullah had brought him. This was a momentous incident, for it would set a precedent: if a group was guilty of fitnah, all bets were off, all moral principles could be set aside. Good became identified with anything that redounded to the benefit of Muslims and Islam, and evil with anything that harmed them.

  INFLICT SLAUGHTER UPON THEM

  The Muslims’ raids on Quraysh caravans precipitated the first major battle the Muslims fought. Muhammad heard that a large Quraysh caravan, laden with money and goods, was coming from Syria. He again ordered his followers to raid it: “This is the caravan of the Quraysh possessing wealth. It is likely that Allah may give it to you as booty.”8

  Some of the Muslims were reluctant; Allah castigated them in a new revelation: “Those who believe say, ‘Why has a surah [a chapter of the Qur’an] not been sent down?’ But when a precise surah is revealed and fighting is mentioned therein, you see those in whose hearts is hypocrisy looking at you with a look of one overcome by death.” (Qur’an 47:20)

  Allah told the Muslims to fight fiercely: “So when you meet those who disbelieve, strike necks until, when you have inflicted slaughter upon them, then secure their bonds, and either favor afterwards or ransom until the war lays down its burdens.” (Qur’an 47:4)

  Muhammad set out toward Mecca to lead the raid. He knew that the Quraysh would be defending their caravan with an army this time, but he was confident: “Forward in good heart,” he told his men, “for God has promised me one of the two parties”—that is, either the caravan or the army. “And by God, it is as though I now see the enemy lying prostrate.”9 When he saw the Quraysh marching toward the Muslims, he prayed: “O God, here come the Quraysh in their vanity and pride, contending with Thee and calling Thy apostle a liar. O God, grant the help which Thou didst promise me. Destroy them this morning!”10 Abu Jahl (which means “Father of Ignorance,” a name given him by Muslim chroniclers; his real name was Amr ibn Hisham), one of the Quraysh leaders, also felt a defining moment was at hand. Oiling a coat of chain mail before the battle, he declared: “No, by God, we will not turn back until God decides between us and Muhammad.”11

  BADR

  The Quraysh came out to meet Muhammad’s three hundred men at the village of Badr with a force of nearly a thousand.12 Muhammad, panicking, warned Allah of the consequences of a Muslim defeat: “O God, if this band perish today Thou wilt be worshipped no more.” But soon after that he expressed confidence in spiritual help that would guarantee the Muslims victory, telling his lieutenant Abu Bakr: “Be of good cheer, O Abu Bakr. God’s help is come to you. Here is Gabriel holding the rein of a horse and leading it. The dust is upon his front teeth.”13

  Muhammad then gave his men a promise that would make them, and Muslim warriors after them throughout the ages, fight all the harder: “By God in whose hand is the soul of Muhammad, no man will be slain this day fighting against them with steadfast courage advancing not retreating but God will cause him to enter Paradise.”14

  His men believed him. One exclaimed: “Fine, Fine! Is there nothing between me and my entering Paradise save to be killed by these men?” He flung away some dates that he had been eating, rushed into the thick of the battle, and fought until he was killed. Another asked Muhammad: “O apostle of God, what makes the Lord laugh with joy at His servant?” Muhammad answered: “When he plunges into the midst of the enemy without mail.” The man did so and fought until he was killed.15

  Muhammad, far back in the ranks, picked up a few pebbles and threw them toward the Quraysh, saying, “Foul be those faces!” Then he ordered the Muslims to charge.16 Despite their superior numbers, the Quraysh were routed. Some Muslim traditions say that Muhammad himself participated in the fighting; others, that it was more likely that he exhorted his followers from the sidelines. In any event, it was an occasion for him to avenge years of frustration, resentment, and hatred toward his people who had rejected him. One of his followers later recalled a curse Muhammad had pronounced on the leaders of the Quraysh: “The Prophet said, ‘O Allah! Destroy the chiefs of Quraish, O Allah! Destroy Abu Jahl bin Hisham, Utba bin Rabi’a, Shaiba bin Rabi’a, Uqba bin Abi Mu’ait, Umaiya bin Khalaf [or Ubai bin Kalaf].’”17

  KILLING MUHAMMAD’S ENEMIES

  All the men Muhammad cursed were captured or killed during the Battle of Badr. One Quraysh leader named in this curse, Uqba, pleaded for his life: “But who will look after my children, O Muhammad?”

  Muhammad at this point may have recalled that it had been Uqba who had thrown camel dung, blood, and intestines on him while he prostrated himself in prayer, as the Quraysh chiefs watched and laughed.18 He had pronounced a curse on them at that time, and now it was being fulfilled. Who would care for Uqba’s children? “Hell,” Muhammad snarled, and ordered Uqba killed.19

  Abu Jahl was beheaded. The Muslim who severed the head proudly carried his trophy to Muhammad: “I cut off his head and brought it to the apostle saying, ‘This is the head of the enemy of God, Abu Jahl.’” Muhammad was delighted and thanked Allah for the murder of his enemy.20

  According to another account, two young Muslims murdered Abu Jahl as he was “walking amongst the people.” One of the murderers explained why: “I have been informed that he abuses Allah’s Messenger. By Him in Whose Hands my soul is, if I should see him, then my body will not leave his body till either of us meet his fate.” After they have done the deed, they went to see the Prophet of Islam, who asked, “Which of you has killed him?”

  Both youths answered, “I have killed him.”

  Muhammad thought of a way to resolve the dispute, asking them: “H
ave you cleaned your swords?” They answered that they had not, so Muhammad inspected their weapons and announced: “No doubt, you both have killed him, and the spoils of the deceased will be given to Mu’adh bin Amr bin Al-Jamuh,’” who was one of the murderers.21

  The bodies of all those named in the curse were thrown into a pit. As an eyewitness recalled: “Later on I saw all of them killed during the battle of Badr and their bodies were thrown into a well except the body of Umaiya or Ubai, because he was a fat man, and when he was pulled, the parts of his body got separated before he was thrown into the well.”22 Then Muhammad taunted them as “people of the pit” and posed a theological question: “Have you found what God promised you is true? I have found that what my Lord promised me is true.” When asked why he was speaking to dead bodies, he replied: “You cannot hear what I say better than they, but they cannot answer me.”23

  ALLAH GRANTS VICTORY TO THE PIOUS

  The victory at Badr was the turning point for the Muslims and became a cornerstone of the new religious community’s foundational story. Many passages of the Qur’an draw lessons for all believers from this battle. Allah emphasized that it was piety, not military might, that brought victory at Badr: “Already there has been for you a sign in the two armies which met—one fighting in the cause of Allah and another of disbelievers. They saw with their eyes that they were twice their number. But Allah supports with His victory whom He wills. Indeed in that is a lesson for those of vision.” (Qur’an 3:13)

  Another revelation had Allah announcing that armies of angels joined with the Muslims to smite the Quraysh, and that similar help would come in the future to Muslims who remained faithful to Allah: “And already had Allah given you victory at Badr while you were few in number. Then fear Allah; perhaps you will be grateful when you said to the believers, ‘Is it not sufficient for you that your Lord should reinforce you with three thousand angels sent down?’ Yes, if you remain patient and conscious of Allah and the enemy come upon you in rage, your Lord will reinforce you with five thousand angels having marks. And Allah made it not except as good tidings for you and to reassure your hearts thereby. And victory is not except from Allah, the Exalted in Might, the Wise.” (Qur’an 3:123–126)

  Allah told Muhammad the angels would always help the Muslims in battle and strike terror into the hearts of the enemies of the Muslims: “When you asked help of your Lord, and He answered you, ‘Indeed, I will reinforce you with a thousand from the angels, following one another.’…When your Lord inspired the angels, ‘I am with you, so strengthen those who have believed. I will cast terror into the hearts of those who disbelieved, so strike upon the necks and strike from them every fingertip.’ That is because they opposed Allah and His Messenger. And whoever opposes Allah and His Messenger—indeed, Allah is severe in penalty.” (Qur’an 8:9, 12–13)

  Allah warned the Quraysh not to attempt another attack, telling them they would again be defeated no matter how much more numerous they were than the Muslims: “If you seek the victory, the defeat has come to you. And if you desist, it is best for you; but if you return, We will return, and you will never be aided by your company at all, even if it should increase, because Allah is with the believers.” (Qur’an 8:19)

  Allah revealed that the Muslims were not just aided; they were merely his passive instruments at Badr. Even the pebbles Muhammad threw toward the Quraysh were not thrown by him, but by Allah: “And you did not kill them, but it was Allah who killed them. And you did not throw, when you threw, but it was Allah who threw that He might test the believers with a good test. Indeed, Allah is Hearing and Knowing.” (Qur’an 8:17)

  Allah promised to grant such victories to pious Muslims even though they faced odds even more prohibitive than those they had overcome at Badr: “O Prophet, urge the believers to battle. If there are among you twenty steadfast, they will overcome two hundred. And if there are among you one hundred steadfast, they will overcome a thousand of those who have disbelieved, because they are a people who do not understand. Now, Allah has lightened the hardship for you, and He knows that among you is weakness. So if there are from you one hundred steadfast, they will overcome two hundred. And if there are among you a thousand, they will overcome two thousand by permission of Allah. And Allah is with the steadfast.” (Qur’an 8:65–66)

  Thus were first enunciated what would become recurring themes of jihad literature throughout the centuries to today: piety in Islam will bring military victory. Allah will send angels to fight with the believing Muslims, such that they will conquer even against overwhelming odds.

  Flush with victory, Muhammad stepped up his raiding operations. During one of them, against the pagan Ghatafan tribe, he was surprised by an enemy warrior while resting. The warrior asked him: “Who will defend you from me today?”

  Muhammad replied coolly, “Allah”—whereupon the warrior dropped his sword. Muhammad seized it quickly and asked, “Who will defend you from me?”

  “None,” said the warrior, and he recited the Shahada (the Muslim profession of faith) and became a Muslim.24

  MUHAMMAD AGAINST THE JEWS

  Now Muhammad turned his attention to the Jewish tribes of Medina, the Banu Qaynuqa, Banu Nadir, and Banu Qurayza, with whom he had made a covenant when he first arrived in the city.25 He was beginning to chafe under that covenant, and Allah gave him a way out, in the form of a revelation allowing him to break treaties he had made with groups when he feared they would betray him, not just when any actual betrayal had taken place: “If you fear betrayal from a people, throw their treaty back to them on equal terms. Indeed, Allah does not like traitors.” (Qur’an 8:58)

  Muhammad announced, “I fear the Banu Qaynuqa,” and resolved to strike them first.26

  Striding into the Qaynuqa’s marketplace, he issued a public warning: “O Jews, beware lest God bring upon you the vengeance that He brought upon Quraysh and become Muslims. You know that I am a prophet who has been sent—you will find that in your scriptures and God’s covenant with you.”

  He added in a revelation from Allah, referring to the Battle of Badr: “Say to those who disbelieve, ‘You will be overcome and gathered together to Hell, and wretched is the resting place.’ Already there has been for you a sign in the two armies which met—one fighting in the cause of Allah and another of disbelievers. They saw with their eyes that they were twice their number. But Allah supports with His victory whom He wills. Indeed in that is a lesson for those of vision.” (Qur’an 3:10)

  The Qaynuqa Jews were not impressed, and replied: “O Muhammad, you seem to think that we are your people. Do not deceive yourself because you encountered a people with no knowledge of war and got the better of them; for by God if we fight you, you will find that we are real men!” 27

  Muhammad’s forces laid siege to the Qaynuqa until they offered him unconditional surrender. But then a Muslim—classified as one of the Hypocrites, those who claimed to be Muslim but disobeyed Allah and opposed and even mocked Muhammad—pleaded that Muhammad be merciful with the Qaynuqa because he had business connections with many of them. Muhammad was angered, but he agreed to spare the Qaynuqa if they turned over their property as booty to the Muslims and left Medina.

  However, Muhammad wanted to make sure this sort of thing did not happen again, and he received a revelation about the relationships that should prevail between Muslims and non-Muslims: “O you who have believed, do not take the Jews and the Christians as friends and allies. They are friends and allies of one another. And whoever is a friend and ally to them among you—then indeed, he is of them. Indeed, Allah guides not the wrongdoing people.” (Qur’an 5:51)

  Allah harshly scolded those who feared a loss of business prospects because of Muhammad’s jihad, warning them not to hurry to the unbelievers’ side: “So you see those in whose hearts is disease hastening to them, saying, ‘We are afraid a misfortune may strike us.’ But perhaps Allah will bring conquest or a decision from Him, and
they will become, over what they have been concealing within themselves, regretful.” (Qur’an 5:52).28

  After the Battle of Badr and the action against the Qaynuqa Jews, Muhammad turned his wrath against a Jewish poet, Ka’b bin Al-Ashraf, who, according to Ibn Ishaq, “composed amatory verses of an insulting nature about the Muslim women.”29 Incensed, Muhammad asked his followers: “Who is willing to kill Ka’b bin Al-Ashraf who has hurt Allah and His Apostle?”30

  A young Muslim named Muhammad bin Maslama volunteered; when the Prophet assented, Maslama made a request: “Then allow me to say a [false] thing [in effect, to deceive Ka’b].”

  Muhammad granted his wish, and so Muhammad bin Maslama went to Ka’b and began to complain about the self-proclaimed prophet to whom he had dedicated his life: “That man [Muhammad] demands sadaqa [or zakat, alms] from us, and he has troubled us, and I have come to borrow something from you.”31 He worked hard to gain Ka’b’s trust, and in order to get close enough to Ka’b to be able to kill him, professed to admire Ka’b’s perfume: “I have never smelt a better scent than this.… Will you allow me to smell your head?” Ka’b agreed; Muhammad bin Maslama thereupon caught Ka’b in a strong grip and commanded his companions: “Get at him!” They killed Ka’b and then hurried to inform the Prophet, carrying Ka’b’s head with them.32 When Muhammad heard the news, he screamed, “Allahu akbar!” and praised Allah.33