The Ocean of Life

by Callum Roberts

  8. Stern, N., The Stern Review on the Economics of Climate Change (UK Government, HM Treasury, 2006); www.webcitation.org/5nCeyEYJ.

  9. Myers, N., “Environmental Refugees,” Population and Environment 19 (1997): 167–82.

  10. Diamond, J. Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Survive (London: Penguin Books, 2005).

  11. Ibid.

  Chapter 16: Farming the Sea

  1. Herubel, M. A., Sea Fisheries: Their Treasures and Toilers (London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1912).

  2. To see this trend we have to first correct for systematic overreporting of Chinese catches. In a centrally planned economy it seems it is better to cook the books than not meet production targets. We also have to take out Peruvian anchovy catches, which make up the largest single species landed in good years. Anchovy abundance jumps up and down in response to the El Niño–Southern Oscillation climate swings that alter the strength of upwelling in the eastern Pacific and therefore dictate the productivity of these seas. Watson, R., and D. Pauly, “Systematic Distortions in World Fisheries Catch Trends,” Nature 414 (2001): 534–36.

  3. Thurstan, R., and C. M. Roberts, “Health Recommendations and Global Fish Availability: Are There Enough Fish to Go Around?” (in press). The figures represent fish available after processing losses (inedible bits like heads, tails, bones and shells). Of course, these calculations are only a mind game, because fish are not distributed evenly, and not all of the global fish catch is eaten directly. For countries like the Philippines and Sierra Leone, fish provide most of the dietary protein. For others, fish are hardly eaten at all; Brazil jumps to mind as a place where restaurants seem to sell almost nothing that isn’t red and meaty.

  4. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2010 (Rome: FAO, 2010).

  5. Costa-Pierce, B. A., “Aquaculture in Ancient Hawaii,” Bioscience 37 (1987): 320–31.

  6. Higginbotham, J., Piscinae: Artificial Fishponds in Roman Italy (Chapel Hill and London: University of North Carolina Press, 1997).

  7. Pliny the Elder, Naturalis Historiae, Book 9 (AD 79), ch. LIV.

  8. Higginbotham, J., Piscinae.

  9. Costa-Pierce, B. A., “Aquaculture in Ancient Hawaii.”

  10. An Encyclopedia of New Zealand, 1966: www.teara.govt.nz/en/1966/fish-introduced-freshwater/1; accessed January 2, 2012.

  11. Herubel, M. A., Sea Fisheries.

  12. Ibid.

  13. There has recently been renewed interest in restocking and enhancing wild fisheries using hatchery-reared animals, but evidence for success is still limited. Bell, J. D., et al., “Restocking and Stock Enhancement of Coastal Fisheries: Potential, Problems and Progress,” Fisheries Research 80 (2006): 1–8.

  14. Williams, J., Clam Gardens: Aboriginal Mariculture On Canada’s West Coast (Vancouver: New Star Books Ltd., 2006).

  15. Naylor, R. N., et al., “Feeding Aquaculture in an Era of Finite Resources,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Science 106 (2009): 15103–10.

  16. Ibid.

  17. Lobo, A. S., et al., “Commercializing Bycatch Can Push a Fishery Beyond Economic Extinction,” Conservation Letters 3 (2010): 277–85.

  18. Tacon, A. G. J., and M. Metian, “Fishing for Feed or Fishing for Food: Increasing Global Competition for Small Pelagic Forage Fish,” Ambio 38 (2009): 294–302.

  19. Brashares, J. S., et al., “Bushmeat Hunting, Wildlife Declines, and Fish Supply in West Africa,” Science 306 (2004): 1180–83.

  20. Schiermeier, Q., “Ecologists Fear Antarctic Krill Crisis,” Nature 467 (2010): 15.

  21. Krkošek, M., et al., “Epizootics of Wild Fish Induced by Farm Fish,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 103 (2006): 15506–10.

  22. Murray, A. G., “Shipping and the Spread of Infectious Salmon Anemia in Scottish Aquaculture,” Emerging Infectious Diseases 8 (2002): 1–5.

  23. Cabello, F. C., “Heavy Use of Prophylactic Antibiotics in Aquaculture: A Growing Problem for Human and Animal Health and for the Environment,” Environmental Microbiology 8 (2006): 1137–44.

  24. Sapkota, A., et al., “Aquaculture Practices and Potential Human Health Risks: Current Knowledge and Future Priorities,” Environment International 34 (2008): 1215–26.

  25. MacGarvin, M., Scotland’s Secret? Aquaculture, Nutrient Pollution, Eutrophication and Toxic Algal Blooms, (Aberfeldy, Scotland: World Wildlife Federation, 2000); www.wwf.org.uk/fileLibrary/pdf/secret.pdf; accessed May 24, 2011.

  26. Biao, X., and Y. Kaijin, “Shrimp Farming in China: Operating Characteristics, Environmental Impact and Perspectives,” Ocean and Coastal Management 50 (2007): 538–50.

  27. Primavera, J. H., “Overcoming the Impacts of Aquaculture on the Coastal Zone,” Ocean and Coastal Management 49 (2006): 531–45.

  28. Jing, G., “China’s Bohai Sea Drowns in Discharged Waste,” Caixin Times, September 9, 2011; http://english.caixin.cn/2011-09-14/100304938.html; accessed October 28, 2011; see also Wang, B., et al., “Water Quality in Marginal Seas off China in the Last Two Decades,” International Journal of Oceanography, (2011); doi:10.1155/2011/731828.

  29. Marris, E., “Transgenic Fish Go Large,” Nature 467 (2010): 259.

  30. Cao, L., et al., “Environmental Impact of Aquaculture and Countermeasures to Aquaculture Pollution in China,” Environmental Science and Pollution Research 14 (2007): 452–62.

  31. Azad, A.K., “Coastal Aquaculture Development in Bangladesh: Unsustainable and Sustainable Experiences,” Environmental Management 44 (2009): 800–9.

  32. Cressey, D., “Future Fish,” Nature 458 (2009): 398–400.

  Chapter 17: The Great Cleanup

  1. Piskaln, C. H., et al., “Resuspension of Bottom Sediment by Bottom Trawling in the Gulf of Maine and Potential Geochemical Consequences,” Conservation Biology 12 (1998): 1223–29.

  2. Stockholm Convention: chm.pops.int/Countries/StatusofRatification/tabid/252/language/en-US/Default.aspx; accessed January 2, 2012. The number of countries is a rough total since it often changes.

  3. Jones, O. A. H., et al., “Questioning the Excessive Use of Advanced Treatment to Remove Organic Micropollutants from Wastewater,” Environmental Science and Technology 41 (2007): 5085–89.

  4. Harvey, F., “EU Unveils Plans to Pay Fishermen to Catch Plastic,” Guardian; www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2011/may/04/eu-fishermen-catch-plastic; accessed January 2, 2012.

  5. Thompson, R. C., et al., “Plastics, the Environment and Human Health: Current Consensus and Future Trends,” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 364 (2009): 2153–66.

  6. O’Brine, T., and R. C. Thompson, “Degradation of Plastic Carrier Bags in the Marine Environment,” Marine Pollution Bulletin, 60 (2010): 2279–83.

  7. Marine Conservation Society UK: www.mcsuk.org/downloads/pollution/beachwatch/latest2011/Methods%20&%20Results%20BW10.pdf; accessed December 28, 2011.

  8. Page, B., et al., “Entanglement of Australian Sea Lions and New Zealand Fur Seals in Lost Fishing Gear and Other Marine Debris Before and After Government and Industry Attempts to Reduce the Problem,” Marine Pollution Bulletin 49 (2004): 33–42; Arnould, J. P. Y., and J. P. Croxall, “Trends in Entanglement of Antarctic Fur Seals (Arctocephalus gazella) in Man-made Debris at South Georgia,” Marine Pollution Bulletin 30 (1995): 707–12.

  9. Mee, L. D., et al., “Restoring the Black Sea in Times of Uncertainty,” Oceanography 18 (2005): 100–11.

  10. Conley, D. J., et al., “Tackling Hypoxia in the Baltic Sea: Is Engineering a Solution?” Environmental Science and Technology 43 (2009): 3407–11.

  11. Weaver, D.E, “Environmental Impacts of Bottom Trawling Suspended Solids Generation. Report for the United Anglers of Southern California” (2008); web.me.com/deweaver/bottom_trawling/Links_to_Docs_files/Bottom_Trawling3.pdf; accessed May 24, 2011; see also: Palanques et al., “Impact of Bottom Trawling on Water Turbidity and Muddy Sediment of an Unfished Continental Shelf,” Limnology and Oceanography 46 (2001): 1100–10.r />
  12. Kunzig, R., “Seven Billion,” National Geographic (January 2011), p. 42–63. In 1900, there were an estimated 1.6 billion people on planet Earth. In 2011, the total reached 7 billion.

  Chapter 18: Can We Cool Our Warming World?

  1. Keith, D. W., “Why Capture CO2 from the Atmosphere?” Science 325 (2009): 1654–55.

  2. Bollmann, M., et al., World Ocean Review. Living With the Ocean (Hamburg: Maribus GmbH, 2010).

  3. Lindeboom, H. J., et al., “Short-term Ecological Effects of an Offshore Wind Farm in the Dutch Coastal Zone: A Compilation,” Environmental Research Letters (2011); doi:10.1088/1748-9326/6/3/035101.

  4. EurekAlert Press Release, “World Needs Climate Emergency Backup Plan, Says Expert,” November 7, 2008: www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2008-;11/ci-wnc110708.php; accessed March 21, 2011.

  5. We will also have to deal with sources of methane. However, as methane has a much shorter life in the atmosphere than carbon dioxide (a half-life of about seven years as compared to about a century for carbon dioxide), direct methane removal will not be necessary—only reduced emissions.

  6. Jones, I. S. F., and H. E. Young, “The Potential of the Ocean for the Management of Global Warming,” International Journal of Global Warming 1 (2009): 43–56.

  7. Strong, A. L., et al., “Ocean Fertilization: Science, Policy and Commerce,” Oceanography 22 (2009): 236–61.

  8. “Carbon Sequestration,” Science 325 (2009): 1644–45.

  9. Haszeldine, R. S., “Carbon Capture and Storage: How Green Can Black Be?” Science 325 (2009): 1647–52.

  10. Rasch, P. J., et al., “Geoengineering by Cloud Seeding: Influence on Sea Ice and Climate System,” Environmental Research Letters 4 (2009): 1–8.

  11. Keith, D. W., et al., “Research on Global Sunblock Needed Now,” Nature 463 (2010): 426–27.

  12. Turner, W. R., et al., “A Force to Fight Global Warming,” Nature 462 (2009): 278–79.

  13. Nellemann, C., et al., eds., Blue Carbon. A Rapid Response Assessment (GRID-Arendal, Norway: United Nations Environment Programme, 2009); www.grida.no.

  14. These figures seem high to me and may not stand up to long-term scrutiny. But they are the best we have at the moment.

  Chapter 19: A New Deal for the Oceans

  1. Hueber, A., “Fake Sea Grass Could Boost Fish Numbers,” New Zealand Herald, January 30, 2011.

  2. Outdoor Alabama, official Web site of the Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources; www.outdooralabama.com/fishing/saltwater/where/artificial-reefs/reefhist.cfm; accessed January 2, 2012.

  3. All U.S. states have regulations that require contaminant chemicals like engine oil to be removed before dumping.

  4. Community of Arran Seabed Trust, UK: www.arrancoast.com.

  5. Howarth, L. M., et al., “Complex Habitat Boosts Scallop Recruitment in a Fully Protected Marine Reserve,” Marine Biology (2011); doi 10.1007/s00227-011-1690-y.

  6. Alcala, A. C., and G. R. Russ, “A Direct Test of the Effects of Protective Management on Abundance and Yield of Tropical Marine Resources,” Journal du Conseil Internationale pour L’Exploration de la Mer, 46 (1990): 40–47; Russ, G. R., and Alcala, A. C., “Marine Reserves: Rates and Patterns of Recovery and Decline of Large Predatory Fish,” Ecological Applications 6 (1996): 947–61; Russ, G. R., and A. C. Alcala, “Enhanced Biodiversity Beyond Marine Reserve Boundaries: The Cup Spillith Over,” Ecological Applications 21 (2011): 241–50.

  7. García-Charton J., et al., “Effectiveness of European Atlanto-Mediterranean MPAs: Do They Accomplish the Expected Effects on Populations, Communities and Ecosystems?” Journal for Nature Conservation 16,(2008): 193–221; Ault, J. S., et al., “Building Sustainable Fisheries in Florida’s Coral Reef Ecosystem: Positive Signs in the Dry Tortugas,” Bulletin of Marine Science 78 (2006): 633–54.

  8. Here is a way you can visualize how marine reserves help to steady the variability of fish stocks. Think of habitats in the sea as being like a sponge that is capable of holding only so much life. Imagine that sponge is held beneath a tap that rains new life upon it to replace the life that dribbles away through mortality by natural and human causes. The tap sometimes flows faster, sometimes more slowly, depending on how favorable conditions are for survival of young animals and plants. Fishing reduces reproduction, so the tap merely trickles and the sponge is only occasionally saturated. Creating marine reserves turns the tap on more forcefully. Although its flow still varies, the sponge is kept full.

  9. Thurstan, R. H., S. Brockington, and C. M. Roberts, “The Effects of 118 Years of Industrial Fishing on UK Bottom Trawl Fisheries,” Nature Communications 1 (2010): 15; doi: 10.1038/ncomms1013.

  10. Fishing News, April 15, 2011.

  11. Mascia, M. B., et al., “Impacts of Marine Protected Areas on Fishing Communities,” Conservation Biology 24 (2010): 1424–29.

  12. Goñi, R., et al., “Spillover from Six Western Mediterranean Marine Protected Areas: Evidence from Artisanal Fisheries,” Marine Ecology Progress Series 366 (2008): 159–74.

  13. Murawksi, S. A., et al., “Effort Distribution and Catch Patterns Adjacent to Temperate MPAs,” ICES Journal of Marine Science 62 (2005): 1150–67.

  14. Hoskin, M. G., et al., “Variable Population Responses by Large Decapods Crustaceans to the Establishment of a Temperate Marine No-take Zone,” Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 68 (2011): 185–200.

  15. PISCO, The Science of Marine Reserves, European edition (PISCO Consortium, 2011); www.piscoweb.org. Lester, S. E., et al., “Biological Effects Within No-take Marine Reserves: A Global Synthesis,” Marine Ecology Progress Series 384 (2009): 33–46.

  16. Svedäng, H., “Long-term Impact of Different Fishing Methods on the Ecosystem in the Kattegat and Öresund,” (European Parliament, 2010); IP/B/PECH/IC/2010_24. Available from Common Fisheries Policy ReformWatch: www.cfp-reformwatch.eu/pdf/kattegatt_oresund_trawl.pdf; accessed January 2, 2012.

  17. Schindler, D. W., et al., “Population Diversity and the Portfolio Effect in an Exploited Species,” Nature 465 (2010): 609–12.

  18. Kean, S., “The Secret Lives of Ocean Fish,” Science 327 (2010): 264.

  19. Unpublished research by myself and colleagues Julie Hawkins, Gemma Aitken, and John Bainbridge, Environment Department, University of York.

  Chapter 20: Life Renewed

  1. The Sunken Billions: The Economic Justification for Fisheries Reform (Washington DC: The World Bank and Rome: FAO, 2009).

  2. Froese, R., and A. Proelß, “Rebuilding Fish Stocks No Later Than 2015: Will Europe Meet the Deadline?” Fish and Fisheries (2010); doi: 10.1111/j.1467-2979.2009.00349.x.

  3. Worm, B., et al., “Rebuilding Global Fisheries,” Science 325 (2009): 578–85.

  4. O’Leary, B., et al., “Fisheries Mismanagement,” Marine Pollution Bulletin 62 (2011): 2642–48.

  5. Prince Charles made this comment in a speech at St. James’ Palace, London, in March 2011.

  6. Bromley, D. W., “Abdicating Responsibility: The Deceits of Fisheries Policy,” Fisheries 34 (2009): 280–90.

  7. Essington, T. E., “Ecological Indicators Display Reduced Variation in North American Catch Share Fisheries,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 107 (2010): 754–59.

  8. The Seth Macinko quote is from a talk I heard him give in Arran, Scotland, in 2010.

  9. Schrope, M., “What’s the Catch?” Nature 465 (2010): 540–42.

  10. Fox, C. J., “West Coast Fishery Trials of a Twin Rigged Nephrops Trawl Incorporating a Large Mesh Topsheet for Reducing Commercial Gadoid Species Bycatch,” Scottish Industry Science Partnership Report, no. 03/10 (Marine Scotland, 2010).

  11. Wooldridge, S. A., and T. J. Done, “Improved Water Quality Can Ameliorate Effects of Climate Change on Corals,” Ecological Applications 19 (2009): 1492–99.

  12. Gibson, L., and N. S. Sodhi, “Habitats at Risk: A Step Forward, a Step Back,” Science 331 (2010): 1137.

  13. Stern, N., “The Economics of Clim
ate Change,” The Stern Review (London: The Cabinet Office, 2007).

  14. Mörner, N., et al., “New Perspectives for the Future of the Maldives,” Global and Planetary Change 40 (2004): 177–82.

  Chapter 21: Saving the Giants of the Sea

  1. Swimmer, S., et al., “Sustainable Fishing Gear: The Case of Modified Circle Hooks in a Costa Rican Longline Fishery,” Marine Biology 158 (2010): 757–67. The authors tested a modified hook that would reduce these horrific bycatch rates. The new hooks reduced the number of turtles caught per mahi-mahi from 2.3 to “just” 1.7, but the authors concluded they would not be acceptable to the fishing industry, because they also reduced capture rates of mahi-mahi by 15 percent.

  2. Edwards, E. F., “Fishery Effects on Dolphins Targeted by Tuna Purse-seiners in the Eastern Tropical Pacific Ocean,” International Journal of Comparative Psychology 20 (2007): 217–27; see also Cramer, K. L., et al., “Declines in Reproductive Output in Two Dolphin Populations Depleted by the Yellowfin Tuna Purse-seine Fishery,” Marine Ecology Progress Series 369 (2008): 273–85.

  3. The best option for guilt-free tuna is “pole and line” caught. Look out for this on the label. Anything that doesn’t mention pole and line will probably have been caught with longlines or purse seines, so many other animals will have been killed to put your fish in the can.

  4. See Tagging of Pacific Predators, www.topp.org, for exciting examples of how tagging can reveal the enigmatic lives of ocean wanderers.

  5. Fujiwara, M., and H. Caswell, “Demography of the Endangered North Atlantic Right Whale,” Nature 414 (2001): 537–41.

  6. United Nations: www.un.org/depts/los/convention_agreements/convention_overview_convention.htm; accessed January 2, 2012.

  7. Personal communication from Guy Stevens, Maldivian Manta Ray Project.

  8. This effort involved many people. My team comprised Beth O’Leary, Rachel Brown, Melanie O’Rourke, Andrew Davies, and Tina Molodtsova. Of the rest, particular credit should go to the German delegation to OSPAR under the direction of Henning von Nordheim, together with Jeff Ardron and Tim Packeiser, WWF International, and the delegations of The Netherlands and Portugal, all ably assisted by David Johnson and his team within the OSPAR secretariat.