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143 A new word entered the Italian language: Ibid., 44.
144 even Meduna hailed: Jessner and Ryan, Shock Treatment, xiv.
144 “Our patients seem”: Shorter and Healy, Shock Therapy, 73.
144 “driv[ing] the Devil out of our patients”: Ibid., 30.
144 “bedevil the psychotic”: Jessner and Ryan, Shock Treatment, xi.
144 “Shock therapy has thrust”: Ibid., xiii.
144 One . . . patient, when coming out of coma: Ibid., 42.
145 Walter Freeman: El-Haj, The Lobotomist.
145 doctors who used drugs: Kalinowsky and Hoch, Shock Treatments, 200–216.
145 The various reflexes disappear: Sakel, “The Methodical Use of Hypoglycemia in the Treatment of Psychoses,” 117.
146 “the therapeutic effect”: Jessner and Ryan, Shock Treatment, 47; see also Cobb, “Review of Neuropsychiatry for 1938.”
146 the improvement “due to the patient’s experience”: Jessner and Ryan, Shock Treatment, 47.
146 “the mistakes in theory”: Quoted in Kalinowsky and Hoch, Shock Treatments, 229.
146 when Sakel noticed: Sakel, Schizophrenia, 235.
146 when Cerletti concluded that he was getting better results: Shorter and Healy, Shock Therapy, 79–82, 94–96.
147 “the results [with neurotics]”: Kalinowsky and Hoch, Shock Treatments, 184.
148 “As treating physicians”: Freeman, “Advantages Noted in Shock Therapy.”
148 “Indiscriminate use”: Kalinowsky and Hoch, Shock Treatments, 185–86.
148 I am pleased to hear: Wortis, Fragments, 113.
149 I said incidentally: Ibid., 110.
149 Psychoanalysis [Freud said]: Ibid.
149 “Analysis never claimed a prerogative”: Ibid.
149 “I said that in New York”: Ibid., 111.
150 “what [Wortis] really wished”: Ibid., 112.
150 “As Charcot [Freud’s early mentor]”: Ibid., 138.
150 “secret love”: Shorter and Healy, Shock Therapy, 84–92.
151 He made his own contribution to the method: Kalinowsky and Hoch, Shock Treatments, 37.
151 the program was terminated: Shorter and Healy, Shock Therapy, 55.
151 “Pasteur of psychiatry”: Shorter and Healy, Shock Therapy, 55–56; Laurence, “Psychiatrist Hits Misuse of Shocks.”
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154 so is Prozac: Kalia et al., “Comparative Study of Fluoxetine.”
158 MDMA has a very powerful effect: For a comprehensive and readable guide to the neurochemistry of MDMA, see Malberg and Bronson, “How MDMA Works in the Brain.”
160 “expedites lingering parturition”: Valenstein, The War of the Soups and the Sparks, 40.
161 he experienced“an uninterrupted stream”: Hofmann, LSD: My Problem Child, 47.
161 “I decided to conduct some experiments”: Grof, “Stanislav Grof Interviews Dr. Albert Hofmann,” 22; http://www.maps.org/news-letters/v11n2/11222gro.html.
161 “I was open to the fact”: Ibid., 24.
162 “Beginning dizziness”: Hofmann, LSD, 48.
162 Every exertion of my will: Ibid., 49.
163 “The effects were still”: Ibid., 52.
163 “model psychoses”: Stevens, Storming Heaven, 11–12.
163 “spectacular, and almost unbelievable”: Schmiege, “The Current State of LSD as a Therapeutic Tool,” 203.
164 “subjects appeared more interested”: Rinkel et al., “Experimental Psychiatry II,” 884.
164 the CIA, which, upon hearing of LSD: For this early history, see Stevens, Storming Heaven, 80–87.
164 “happy and dreamy feeling”: Rinkel, DeShon, and Solomon, “Experimental Schizophrenia-like Symptoms,” 574.
164 “subjects became hostile”: Rinkel et al., “Experimental Psychiatry II,” 883.
164 “By taking Delysid himself”: Stevens, Storming Heaven, 12.
165 To make the trivial world sublime: Ibid., 57.
165 bringing scientific research: It’s not strictly illegal to conduct research with LSD or other illegal drugs, but the bar is set high. Researchers must pass muster with the Drug Enforcement Agency, which tends to be suspicious of people who want to use illegal drugs for any purpose. In the last five years, however, some scientists have succeeded at launching some small studies in which people take LSD.
166 Gaddum had gotten samples of serotonin: Gaddum and Hameed, “Drugs Which Antagonize 5-hydroxytryptamine.”
166 “The cats became for a time”: Green, “Gaddum and LSD,” 9.
166 Lysergic acid diethylamide: Gaddum, “Antagonism between Lysergic Acid Diethylamide and 5-hydroxytryptamine,” 15P.
167 he finally “experienced some of the known effects”: Green, “Gaddum and LSD,” 9.
167 “that the mental effects”: Amin, Crawford, and Gaddum, “The Distribution of the Substance P,” 616.
167 that the mental changes: Woolley and Shaw, “A Biochemical and Pharmacological Suggestion.”
168 “queer like a monstrous picture”: Green, “Gaddum and LSD,” 10.
168 according to his daughter: Healy, The Creation of Psychopharmacology, 204.
168 We have all had wonderful dreams: Thuillier, Ten Years That Changed the Face of Mental Illness, 70–71.
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172 “recurrent substance use”: American Psychiatric Association, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual, 4th ed., text revision, 199.
173 “It is precisely those communities”: Freud, Civilization and Its Discontents, 50–51.
174 Carlos Zarate: Zarate et al., “A Randomized Trial of an n-methyl-D-aspartate Antagonist.”
175 “serendipitous discovery”: Ibid., 856.
175 “a single dose [of ketamine]”: Ibid., 857.
175 “play an important role”: Ibid.
175 anesthesiologists and pain doctors have long noted: See, for instance, Correll and Futter, “Two Case Studies of Patients with Major Depressive Disorder.”
176 they’ve been using the drug therapeutically: For this history see “Ketamine,” Erowid website, www.erowid.org/ketamine/.
176 “perceptual disturbances, confusion”: Zarate et al., “A Randomized Trial,” 861.
178 “I felt the hammer striking”: Thuillier, Ten Years, 106.
179 Ehrlich had tried a dye: Bäumler, Paul Ehrlich, 39–41.
179 Pietro Bodoni, started to give methylene blue: Healy, Creation of Psychopharmacology, 44–45.
179 “Patents had been obtained”: Ibid., 45.
179 they had an overall effect that was interesting: Ibid., 80.
180 One day, so the story goes: Thuillier, Ten Years, 112.
180 In the corridors: Ibid., 113.
180 “pharmacological lobotomy”: Ibid., 109.
181 Chlorpromazine was slow to catch on: Healy, The Creation of Psychopharmacology, 83–85, 96–99.
182 the first test subject: Broadhurst, interview.
182 Fortunately for them: Kuhn, “The Imipramine Story,” 210.
182 “rode, in his nightshirt”: Tansey and Christie, “Drugs in Psychiatric Practice,” 141.
183 he repeated the performance: Kuhn, “The Treatment of Depressive States.”
183 psychiatrists compared him to Ichabod Crane: Healy, The Antidepressant Era, 57.
183 “bring a complete change”: Kuhn, “The Treatment of Depressive States,” 462–63.
184 “a general retardation”: Ibid., 459.
184 “Almost any neurotic symptom”: Ibid., 462.
184 “had not been so well”: Kuhn, “The Imipramine Story,” 216.
184 a “world-wide ignorance”: Ibid., 212.
185 depression was too small a market: Healy, Antidepressant Era, 56–59.
185 a story appeared: Laurence, “Wide New Fields Seen for TB Drug,” 1, 3.
186 “an international wheeler-dealer”: Tansey and Christie, “Drugs in Psychiatric Practice,” 145.
1
86 When an observant brat: Kline, “Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors,” 194.
186 Rauwolfia serpentina: Goenka, “Rustom Jal Vakil and the Saga of Rauwolfia serpentina,” 196.
187 the glaziers at his hospital: Kline, “Use of Rauwolfia serpentina Benth. in Neuropsychiatric Conditions,” 121.
187 would relieve simple depression: Kline, “Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors,” 197.
188 “immediately led me to speculate”: Ibid., 198.
188 “Here indeed was a fairly unique situation!”: Ibid., 200.
188 Kline arranged to testify: Loomer, Saunders, and Kline, “Iproniazid: An Amine-Oxidase Inhibitor.”
188 “a side effect of an anti-tuberculosis drug”: Harrison, “TB Drug Is Tried in Mental Cases.”
189 “a disease is what the medical profession recognizes”: Jellinek, The Disease Concept of Alcoholism, 12.
189 “On the antidepressant drugs”: Rusk, “Drugs and Depression.”
189 “eudaemonia”: Laurence, “Drug Called a Psychic Energizer Found Useful in Treating Mental Illnesses.”
189 “moral and social implications”: Kuhn, “Treatment of Depressive States,” 464.
189 “could improve ordinary performance”: Laurence, “Drug Called a Psychic Energizer.”
190 “persistent moderate depression”: New York Times, “Death of Woman Laid to ‘Pep Pills,’” April 11, 1958.
190 dose intended for “severe depression”: New York Times, “City Agents Hunt Supplies of Drug,” April 12, 1958, 1.
190 “CITY RESTRICTS SALE OF ENERGIZING DRUGS”: Ibid.
190 “DRUG INVESTIGATED IN 2 DEATHS IN CITY”: New York Times, April 15, 1958, 1.
190 reports of jaundice: Kline, “Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors,” 202.
191 “headline hunting”: New York Times, “Physician Warns on Wonder Drugs,” April 13, 1960.
191 the roster of “wonder drugs”: Ibid.
192 Even the Puritans: Levine, “The Discovery of Addiction,” 144–46.
192 $14 billion a year: That’s the drug czar’s estimate for 2008. It doesn’t include the costs of incarceration. See Office of National Drug Control Policy, “National Drug Control Strategy,” http://www.whitehousedrug policy.gov/publications/policy/09budget/exec_summ.pdf.
192 $14 billion is only a little more: You can add it up yourself. See “Pharmacy Facts and Figures,” Drug Topics website, http://drugtopics.modern medicine.com/drugtopics/article/articleList.jsp?categoryId=7604.
193 “If a drug makes you feel good”: Klerman, “Psychotropic Hedonism vs. Pharmacological Calvinism,” 3.
193 From Sad to Glad: Kline, From Sad to Glad: Kline on Depression.
194 the “inaugural article” of the antidepressant era: Healy, Antidepressant Era, 148.
195 They ran a controlled clinical trial: Davies and Shepherd, “Reserpine in the Treatment of Anxious Patients.”
195 an excellent account: Healy, Antidepressant Era, 152–55.
196 “There is good evidence”: Schildkraut, “The Catecholamine Hypothesis,” 517.
197 “at best, a reductionistic oversimplification”: Ibid.
197 “considerable heuristic value”: Ibid., 518.
198 the “soups” and the “sparks”: Valenstein, War of the Soups and the Sparks.
198 a British team: Curtis and Eccles, “Excitation of Renshaw Cells.”
198 John Gaddum figured out: Gaddum, “Push-Pull Cannulae.”
198 brilliant, beautiful photos: Dahlstrom and Carlsson, “Making Visible the Invisible.”
198 one of the most-cited papers in the medical literature: Healy, Antidepressant Era, 156.
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203 “it was discovered”: Thomas, The Medusa and the Snail, 159.
203 A total of seventy-four trials: Turner et al., “Selective Publication of Antidepressant Trials.”
204 another analysis of clinical trials: Kirsch et al., “The Emperor’s New Drugs.”
204 the FDA’s own director of clinical research: Leber, “Approvable Action on Forrest Laboratories, Inc.”
204 according to a team of reviewers: Turner et al., “Selective Publication of Antidepressant Trials.”
204 severe depressions blunt the placebo effect: Kirsch et al., “Initial Severity and Antidepressant Benefits.”
205 the American Medical Association, in its first code of ethics: Brody, Hooked, 139–41.
205 there were two kinds in the world: See Liebnau, Medical Science and Medical Industry, 4–10.
205 Cuforhedake Brane-Fude: Young, The Medical Messiahs, 3–12.
206 the U.S. government, just then on the cusp of its Progressive Era: Temin, Taking Your Medicine, 18–37.
206 a highly publicized stunt: Ibid., 28.
206 “the greatest instrument”: Liebnau, Medical Science, 91.
207 “any statement…which shall be false”: Temin, Taking Your Medicine, 30.
207 the Harrison Anti-Narcotics Law: Liebnau, Medical Science, 94.
207 Dr. Johnson’s Mild Combination Treatment for Cancer: Young, Medical Messiahs, second photo after 204.
207 “with reference to plain matter of fact”: Temin, Taking Your Medicine, 33.
208 outlaw “any statement”: Ibid.
208 Franklin Roosevelt, the president’s son: “Prontosil,” Time, December 28, 1936.
209 “just throw drugs together”: Brody, Hooked, 248.
209 the FDA found that its only recourse: Temin, Taking Your Medicine, 42–43; Brody, Hooked, 250–51.
209 Had Massengill named its drug: Marks, Progress of Experiment, 82.
209 doctors would dispense the information necessary: Marks, Progress of Experiment, 83–89; “Prontosil,” Time, December 28, 1936.
210 “there is no scientific evidence”: Marks, Progress of Experiment, 96.
211 “the wives of my Congressional group”: Ibid., 96–97.
211 This was the regulatory environment: Lasagna, “Congress, the FDA, and New Drug Development,” 323.
212 The doctor of today: Lasagna, “The Controlled Clinical Trial,” 353.