A History of the Roman World

by Scullard, H. H.

  Beside annalistic accounts historians wrote monographs. Philinus of Agrigentum composed in Greek an important account of the First Punic War, which was one of the main sources used by Polybius. An important monograph was the Bellum Punicum of Coelius Antipater (c. 120 BC), who used Fabius, other annalists, Silenus (a Geek historian who campaigned with Hannibal) and Polybius. Coelius’ work was one of Livy’s main sources in his third decade; though praised by Cicero (not least for its literary style), it appears from the existing fragments to be marred by rhetorical exaggeration. Among the writers of monographs may be classed Appian, an Alexandrine Greek (c. AD 160) who composed a Roman history in 24 books, divided on a geographical principle; he dealt with wars in Italy, Spain, Africa, etc., in separate books. For the Hannibalic War he relied mainly on the later annalists, for the second century on Polybius and the annalistic tradition.

  Of historians of the world Polybius is the most important. This statesman of the Achaean League was deported to Rome in 167 where he gained the intimate friendship of Scipio Aemilianus with whom he witnessed the fall of Carthage and perhaps Numantia. Of his 40 books the first five survive complete, the rest in excerpts of considerable length. He realized that Rome’s conquest of the Mediterranean world had given history an organic unity it had never before possessed. His theme was to show how the Romans had subdued the whole inhabited world in less than fifty-three years. His aim was truth; to attain it he eschewed the attractive rhetoric of many of his contemporaries and wrote a pragmatic account, to which he devoted the critical faculties of a trained historian and the wisdom of an experienced and widely-travelled statesman. After a sketch of the events of 264–220 he treats in detail world history from 220 to 167; he later continued his account down to 145. He has been hailed by Mommsen as the ‘sun in the field of Roman history’, and by T. R. Glover as ‘the first true historian of Rome’. Of the 40 books of the Universal History of the Sicilian Diodorus (c. 30 BC) books i–v, xi–xx (the last from 480 to 302 BC) survive in complete form. He is more concerned with Greek than Roman history. His notices of early Roman history may derive from some chronological table, but it is quite probable that he used as his chief source one of the earlier Roman annalists, e.g. Fabius Pictor, and thus preserves a better tradition than Livy or Dionysius; for the period after 200 BC he used Polybius.

  Biography was first popularized at Rome by Varro. The Lives of Nepos (99–24 BC) are not of great historical value, those by Plutarch are more important. Plutarch does not claim the title of historian; his object is rather to point a moral and adorn a tale, but he provides some valuable material. He used various sources; antiquarian studies for the lives of Romulus and Numa; Dionysius for Coriolanus; Fabius Pictor, Ennius and Greek historians contemporary with Pyrrhus for Pyrrhus; Polybius, Coelius, annalists and Livy for Fabius, Marcellus and Aemilius Paullus.

  Finally, reference may be made to the valuable information contained in the works of such writers as Cicero and Varro, and to the far less valuable sketches and epitomes by Florus (c. AD 130), Eutropius (fourth century) and Orosius (AD 417), who mainly reproduce the Livian tradition.

  4. SOURCES

  It may be found useful to provide a list of some of the more important literary sources for this period. To attempt to give a complete list, and still more to add references to the epigraphic, archaeological and numismatic material, would far exceed the scope of this short note. But the following references may help to put those readers, who do not already know the way well, on the track of some of the more important literary sources for the narrative portions of this book. Authors’ names are given in full in the first reference, but are then generally abbreviated (note, L. for Livy, and P. for Polybius).

  Chapter I The Land and its Peoples

  7 THE ETRUSCANS. Appian, Lib., ix, 66; Dionysius of Halicarnassus, i, 26–30; Herodotus, i, 94; Justin, xx, 5; Pliny, N.H., iii, 50, 51; 112 f., 133; Strabo, v, 2, 1–2; 2, 4; Tacitus, Ann., iv; 55, xi, 14; Thucydides, iv, 109; Livy, v, 33.

  Chapter II Regal Rome

  2 THE FOUNDATION OF ROME; THE LEGENDS. Dionys., i, 72–4; Festus, s.v. Roma; Cicero, de rep., ii, 3; 5–7; 10, 18; Plutarch, Romul., 12; Velleius Paterculus, i, 8; Solinus, i; Orosius, ii, 1.

  3–4 THE EARLY KINGS. THE SIXTH-CENTURY KINGS. L., i, ii, 1–15; Dionys., ii–v, 36; Cic, de rep., ii, 1–30; Plut., Romul.; Numa; Poplicola; App., Basilic., 1–12; Dio Cassius, i–iv; Zonaras, vii, 1–12; Eutropius, i. 1–11; Florus, i, 1–2; 4.

  Chapter III The New Republic and the Struggle of the Orders

  L. ii–iv (see especially ii, 1; 8; 18; 32–5; 41–2; 52; 54–7; iii, 20, 7; 30, 7; 33–59; iv, 1; 6–8; 12–16; 24; 43–4; 54); v, 12; 7–13; Dionys., v–xi (see esp. v, 19; vi, 89; ix, 41–9;x, 55–61;xi, 1–46); Cic., de rep., ii, 31–7; de leg., iii, 3, 8–9; 7, 16–17; 8, 19; 10, 24; Dio, iv–vi (frgs); Zon., vii, 13–20; Tac, Ann., xi, 22; Asconius, in Cornelianam, p. 76 Cl.; Diodorus, xii, 24–6; Pliny, N.H., xviii, 4.

  Chapter IV The Roman Republic and its Neighbours

  1 THE TRIPLE ALLIANCE. L., i, 50; ii, 19–20; 22; 25–6; 33; 40, 12–41, 1; Dionys., v, 61; vi, 4–13; 95; viii, 69; Cic. pro Balbo, 23, 53; P., iii, 22.

  2 THE SABINES, AEQUI AND VOLSCI. L., ii–iv (see esp. ii, 16; 22; 25–6; 30–1; 33–49; 53; 58–60; 62–5; iii, 1–8; 15–18; 22–30; 42; 60–3; 66; 69–70; iv, 9–11; 26–30; 37; 43; 45–7; 51; 56–7); Dionys., ii, 49; v–xi (passim); Plut., Poplicola, 20–2; Coriolanus; Diod., xi, 40, 5; xii, 30, 6; 34, 5; 64; xiii, 42, 6; xiv, 11, 6; Dio, v (frgs); Zon., vii, 16–18; App., Ital., 5–7 (frgs).

  3 THE DUEL WITH VEII L., ii, 42–50; iv, 17–23; 30–34; 57–61; v, 1–8; 13–32; Diod., xi, 53, 6; xii, 80, 6–8; xiv, 16, 5; 43, 5; 93; 98, 5; 102, 4; Plut., Camill., 1–13; Zon., vii, 20–1; Dionys., xiii, 1–2.

  4 THE GALLIC CATASTROPHE. L., v, 33–49; P., i, 6, 2–4; ii, 14–18; Diod., xiv, 113–17; Plut., Camill., 14–30; App., Celt., 1–9 (frgs); Dio, vii, 25; Dionys., i, 74; xiii, 6–10; Flor., i, 7.

  5 THE RECOVERY OF ROME. L. v, 50–5; vi, 1–10; 22–33; 42; vii, 7–27; P., ii, 18, 6–8; Plut., Camill., 31–43; Zon., vii, 24.

  6–7 ROME’S WIDENING HORIZON. THE END OF THE LATIN LEAGUE. L., vii, 27, 2; 29–42; viii, 1–14; P., iii, 22–7; Oros., iii, 7; Diod., xvi, 15; 45, 8; 69, 1; App., Samn., 1–2; Dio, vii, 35; Zon., vii, 26.

  Chapter V The Union of the Orders and the Constitution

  L., vi, 11; 14–21; 34–42 (see esp. 35, 4–5 (cf. x, 13, 14 and 23, 13), 42, 11–14); vii, 1; 15, 13; 16, 1; 17, 6; 21, 5; 22, 6–10; 27, 3–4; 41; 42, 1–2; viii, 12, 14–16; 15, 9; 23, 12; 28; ix, 20, 5; 29, 5–11; 30, 1–4; 33–4; 42, 1–3; 46; x, 6–9; 22, 9; Epit., xi; xii; Dionys., xiv, 12; Diod., xv, 61, 1; xx, 36; Fest., p. 288L; App., BC, i, 8; Gellius, xv, 27; Gaius, i, 3; Dio, viii, 37, 2–4; Zon., viii, 2; Pliny, N.H., xvi, 10, 37.

  Chapter VI Rome’s Conquest and Organization of Italy

  1–3 ROME AND THE SAMNITES. THE GREAT SAMNITE WAR. ROME’S TRIUMPHANT ADVANCE. L., viii, 15–17; 19–27; 29–31; 36–40; ix, 1–29; 31–2; 35–45; x, 1–5, 10–21; 25–46; Epit., xi; xii; P., ii. 19–20; App., Samn., 4–6; Dio, viii, 36, 8–24; 28–32; Diod., xix, 10, 1–2; 65, 7; 72, 3–9; 76; 101; xx, 26, 3–4; 35; 44, 8–9; 80; 90, 3–4; 101, 4–5; Dionys., xv–xviii (frgs); Eutrop., ii, 9–10; Flor., i, 11–12; Velleius, i, 14, 3–6; Zon., vii, 26; 8, 1.

  4–6 THE GREEKS OF SOUTHERN ITALY. THE ITALIAN ADVENTURE OF PYRRHUS. THE END OF PRE-ROMAN ITALY. App., Samn., 7–12; Dio, ix–x; Diod., xx, 104; Dionys. xix– xx; Flor., i, 13–16; P., iii, 25; Justin (ep. Trog.), xviii, 1–2; L., Epit., xii–xv; Plut., Pyrrhus; Velleius, i, 14, 7–8; Zon., viii, 2–7.

  Chapter VII The First Struggle

  P., i, 5–64; L., Epit., xvi–xix; App., Sic., 1–2; Lib., i, 1–4; Dio, xi; Diod., xxii–xxiv (frgs); Eutrop., ii, 18–28; Flor., i, 18; Oros., iv, 7–11; Zon., viii, 8–17.

  Chapter VIII The Entr’acte

  2 CARTHAGE AND THE SARDINIAN QUESTION. P., 1, 65–88; iii, 10; L. Epit., xx; App., Sic., ii, 3; Zon., viii, 18.r />
  3 ROME AND THE GAULS. P., ii, 17–35; L., Epit., xx; Dio, xii, 50; Flor., i, 19–20; Zon., viii, 18; 20.

  4 THE ILLYRIAN PIRATES. P., ii, 2–12; iii, 16; 18–19; L., Epit., xx; App., Illyr., 2, 7–8; Dio, xii, 49; 53; Flor., i, 21; Zon., viii, 19–20.

  5–6 THE PUNIC EMPIRE IN SPAIN. THE CAUSES OF THE SECOND PUNIC WAR. P., ii, 1; 13; 36; iii, 10–15; 17; 20–30; 33; App., Iber., 1–2; Dio, xii, 48; Diod., xxv, 9; Justin, xliv; Zon, viii, 19; L., xxi, 1–3.

  Chapter IX Hannibal’s Offensive and Rome’s Defensive

  1, 2, 6 HANNIBAL’S INVASION OF NORTHERN ITALY. HANNIBAL IN CENTRAL ITALY. FABIUS AND ROME’S DEFENSIVE. P., iii, 33–94; 100–18; vii, 1; viii, 26–36; ix, 3–8; 22–6; 44; x, 1; L., xxi, 1–59; 61–2; xxii, 1–18; 23–61; xxiii, 1–25; 30–9; 42–9; xxiv, 1–3; 7–20; 43–9; xxv, 1–22; 40; xxvi, 1–16; 21–4; 26–40; xxvii, 1–16; App., Han., i–viii, 49; Dio, xiii–xv (frgs); Eutrop., iii, 7–23; Flor., i, 22; Nepos, Hannib.; Oros., iv, 14 ff.; Plut., Fab.; Marcell.; Zon., viii, 21–ix, 6.

  3 THE SCIPIOS AND SPAIN. P., iii, 76; 95–9; ix, 11; L., xxi, 60–1; xxii, 19–22; xxiii, 26–9; xxiv, 41–2; xxv, 32–9; App., Iber., 3; Zon., ix, 3.

  4 THE EXTENSION OF THE WAR TO MACEDON. P., vii, 9; x, 25; 41; L., xxiii, 33; 40–1; xxiv, 40; xxvi; 24–6; xxvii, 29–33; xxviii, 5–8; xxix, 12; Zon., ix, 4.

  5 MARCELLUS AND SICILY. P., vii, 2–8; viii, 5–9; 37; ix, 10; 27; L., xxiv, 4–7; 21–39; xxv, 23–31; 40; xxvi, 40; App., Sic., iii–v; Zon., ix, 4–5.

  Chapter X Scipio and Rome’s Offensive

  1 SCIPIO’S CONQUEST OF SPAIN. P., x, 2–20; 34–40; xi, 20–33; L., xxvi, 17–20; 41–51; xxvii, 17–20; xxviii, 1–4; 12–38; xxix, 1–2; App., Iber., 4–7; Dio, xvi (frgs); Eutrop., iii, 15; Zon., ix, 7–10.

  2 THE WAR IN ITALY. P., x, 32–3; xi, 1–3; L., xxvii, 20–9; 33–50; xxviii, 9–12; 38–46; xxix, 5–11; 13–23; 36–8; xxx, 1–2; 18–24; 26–8; 38–45; App., Han., viii, 50–ix, 61; Dio, xvi–xvii (frgs); Plut., Fab.; Marcell.; Zon., ix, 8–9.

  3–4. THE ROMAN OFFENSIVE IN AFRICA. VICTORY AND PEACE. P., xiv, 1–10; xv, 1–19; L., xxix, 3–4; 23–36; xxx, 3–17; 24; 29–38; App., Lib., ii, 7–ix, 66; Dio, xvii (frgs); Eutrop., iii, 20–3; Zon., ix, 12–14.

  Chapter XI Rome and Greece

  P., xv, 20–5; xvi, 1–12; 24–35; xviii, 1–12; 18–39; 42–8; L., xxxi, 1–9; 14–18; 22–47; xxxii, 1–25; 28; 32–40; xxxiii, 1–21; 27–35; xxxiv, 22–41; 48–52; App., Maced., iv–ix, 4; Dio, xviii, 57–60; Flor., i, 23; Plut., Flamininus; Zon., ix, 15–16; 18.

  Chapter XIII Rome and Antiochus

  1– THE DIPLOMATIC CONFLICT. THE WAR IN GREECE. P., xviii, 49–52; xx, 3; 7–11; xxi, 1–5; L., xxxiii, 38–41; xxxiv, 57; xxxv, 12–13; 15–19; 25–83; 42–51; xxxvi, 1–35; App., Syr., i, 1–iv, 21; Flor., i, 24; Plut., Cato, 13–14; Zon., ix, 18–19.

  3–4 THE WAR IN ASIA. THE SETTLEMENT OF THE EAST. P., xxi, 6–48; L., xxxvi, 41–5; xxxvii, 1–45; 52–7; 60; xxxviii, 1–41; App. Syr., v, 22–vii, 44; Flor., i, 27; Zon., ix, 20–1.

  Chapter XIII Rome and the Eastern Mediterranean

  1 THE GROWING TENSION. P., xxii, 1–4; 6–15; 18–19; xxiii, 1–18; xxiv, 1–3; 6–13; xxv, 2; L., xxxix, 23–9; 33–7; 46–53; xl, 2–16; 20–4; 54–8; xli, 22–5; xlii, 5–6.

  2 THE THIRD MACEDONIAN WAR. P., xxvii, 1–11; 14–16; xxviii, 3–15; xxiv, 1–11; 13–21; xxx, 6–15; 22; 29; 32; L., xlii, 25–67; xliii, 7–12; 17–23; xliv, 1–13; 16; 18; 20–46; xlv, 4; 6–9; 17–18; 26–34; App. Mac., xi–xix; Illyr., ii, 9–10; Dio, xx (frgs); Flor., i, 28; Plut., Aem. Paullus; Zon., ix, 22–4.

  3 THE HELLENISTIC EAST. P., xxii, 5; 16–17; xxiv, 1; 5; 14–15; xxv, 1; 4–6; xxvi, 1; xxvii, 3–4; 7; 17–20; xxviii, 1–2; 16–23; xxix, 2; 22–7; xxx, 1–5; 16–21; 23–8; 30–1; xxxi, 1–20; 30–3; xxxii, 1–12; 15–16; xxxiii, 1–7; 11–19; xxxv, 6; xxxvi, 14–15; xxxix, 7; L., xli, 20; xlii, 11–17; 45; xliii, 6; xliv, 14–15; 19; xlv, 3; 10–13; 19–26; 44; Epit., xlvi–liii; Zon., ix, 25.

  4 THE END OF GREEK INDEPENDENCE P., xxxvi, 10–11; 17; xxxviii, 9–18; xxxix, 2–6; L., Epit., xlix; lii; Flor., i, 30–2; Pausanias, vii, 11–16; Zon, ix, 28; 31.

  Chapter XIV Rome, Italy and the Western Mediterranean

  1 THE NORTHERN FRONTIER. P., xxxii, 9; 13; xxxiii, 8–10; L., xxxi, 2; 10; 29; xxxii, 29–31; 36–7; xxxiv, 46–8; xxxv, 3–6; 11; 22; xxxvi, 38–40; xxxix, 1–2; 20; 54–5; xl, 16; 25–8; 38; 41; 53; xli, 1–4; 10–12; 17–19; xlii, 7–9; App., Illyr., ii, 11; Dio, xviii; Flor., i, 26; Zon., ix. 15.

  2–4 CATO AND GRACCHUS IN SPAIN. THE CELTIBERIAN AND LUSITANIAN WARS. THE NUMANTINE WAR. P., xxxv, 1–5; L. xxxiii, 21; xxxiv, 8–21; xxxv, 1–2; 22; xxxix, 20–1; 30–1; xl, 16; 30–3; 35–6; 39–40; 47–50; xli, 26; App., Iber., viii, 39– xvi, 98; Dio, xxii–xxiii (frgs); Flor., i, 33–4; Plut., Cato, 10; Zon., ix, 17.

  5–7 CARTHAGE AND MASINISSA. DELENDA EST CARTHAGO. THE FALL OF CARTHAGE. P., xxxi, 21; xxxvi, 1–9; 16; xxxviii, 7–8; 19–22; L., xxxi, 11; 19; xxxiii, 45–9; xxxiv, 60–2; xxxv, 14; xxxix, 51; xl, 17; xlii, 23–4; xlv, 13–14; Epit., xlviii–liii; App., Lib., x, 67–xx, 135; Flor., i, 31; Zon., ix, 18; 26–7; 29–30.

  Chapter XV Roman Policy and the Government

  P., vi, 11–56; L., xxxiii, 27, 6; xxxiv, 1; 45; xxxvii, 57; xxxviii, 42–60; xxxix, 8–19; 40–4; 55; xl, 19; 34; 37; 44; 51–2; xli, 9; xliii, 2–5; xlv, 15; Cic. de rep., ii, 54; de offic., ii, 75; Brut., 106; Cato, Speeches (frgs); Gellius, x, 3, 13.

  5. CHRONOLOGY

  Many of the difficulties of Roman chronology derive from the long-continued absence of a generally accepted era. The main points chosen by the Romans were the foundation of the city, the first consulships, and the sack of Rome by the Gauls. Attempts to establish these dates were made by two methods, either by synchronizing them with Greek Olympiads or Athenian archonships, or by standardizing the list of Roman magistrates. By the former method the foundation of Rome was set in 752 (Cato), 751–750 (Polybius and Diodorus), 748 (Fabius) or 729–728 (Cincius); the first consulship in 508–507 by Polybius and 508 by Dionysius; and the sack of Rome in 387 by Polybius and Dionysius. The list of magistrates, however, was not quite long enough to span these periods, so that various expedients were devised by Roman antiquarians. Five years of anarchy (solitudo magistratuum) were interpolated into the period of the Licinian laws (so Livy and Fasti; Diodorus gives only one); or the same college of magistrates was repeated (those of 391–387 repeated after the Gallic invasion by Diodorus), or four years were interpolated during which dictators and masters of the horse were the chief magistrates (in 333, 324, 309, 301; Fasti). Finally, the foundation of Rome was set in 754–753 by Atticus and Varro; this date was officially accepted and so fixed chronology could be established ab urbe condita. In modern times the Varronian system is generally accepted as a convenient convention and is used in this volume; thus the sack of Rome is placed in 390 rather than more accurately in 387. The year of the foundation is usually set in 753 in order to allow only the 119 years which the Capitoline Fasti establish between the first consulship and the sack of Rome.

  Though the dates from the third century can be established with adequate accuracy, the Roman calendar remained confused, because the Roman year of twelve lunar months was too short and constantly got out of gear with the solar year. To counterbalance this the pontiffs used to intercalate an extra month of 22 or 23 days after February every two years. But this was not satisfactory, especially during the Hannibalic War which engrossed all attention, and in fact the Roman calendar had advanced far ahead of the Julian, perhaps by some four months, though some calculations would put it at only one or two; the problem hinges on how many intercalations were in fact made (however, an eclipse which ocurred on 14 March 190 happened according to the Roman calandar on 11 July). In 191 Acilius Glabrio passed a law to regulate intercalations, but this provisional remedy proved inadequate: thus the Roman date of an eclipse which occurred on 21 June 168 was 3 September, although intercalation had been made in 169. It needed t
he political scandals of the last century BC and the statesmanship of Julius Caesar to set the matter right.6

  CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE

  This table is designed to emphasize some of the outstanding events in early Roman history. The Varronian dating (pp. 377ff.) has been followed. Prior to 390 BC many of the dates are merely traditional and some of the facts (e.g. the foundation of colonies) are not above suspicion.

  A. THE REGAL PERIOD

  Growth of Rome

  c. 800(?) bc Roma Quadrata; settlement on Palatine.

  c. 750-670 Septimontium; union of settlers of Palatine, Velia, Fagutal, Cispius, Oppius, and Caelius.

  7th cent. City of the Four Regions; addition of Quirinal, Viminal, and part of Forum.

  7th cent. end Last Forum burials.

  6th cent. ‘Servian’ City, including Capitol and Esquiline.

  Traditional Dates

  753-715 Romulus.

  715-673 Numa Pompilius. Established cult of Vesta, etc.

  673-642 Tullus Hostilius. Destruction of Alba Longa.

  642-616 Ancus Marcius. Extension of Rome’s power to coast.

  616-579 L. Tarquinius Priscus. Forum drained.