A History of the Roman World

by Scullard, H. H.

  5 IUS MIGRANDI. The law that members of Latin colonies founded after 266 must leave a son behind (p. 484 n. 24) might be evaded by manumitting and adopting a slave. Between 187 and 177 the restricted ius migrandi was probably applied to all Latin colonies.

  6 LEGES PORCIAE. See Bloch-Carcopino, La République romaine, ii, 145; A. H. McDonald, JRS, 1944, 19; A. H. M. Jones, Criminal Courts of the Roman Republic and Principate (1972), 22 ff.

  7 ALLIED GRIEVANCES. Senatorial interference: Polybius, vi, 13, 3. Sidicinum: C. Gracchus, apud Aul. Gell., x, 3, 2–3.

  8 ANTI-EXPANSIONISM. See F. B. Marsh, The Founding of the Roman Empire (1927), ch. i.

  9 ROMAN POLICY NON-COMMERCIAL. See T. Frank, Roman Imperialism (1914), ch. xiv; and CAH, viii, 348; also cf. p. 518 n. 18 above. On Italian trade see J. Hatzfeld, Les trafiquants italiens dans l’Orient hellénique (1919).

  10 PROVINCIAL ADMINISTRATION. The general methods have already been discussed in connection with the formation of the province of Sicily (ch. viii, 1): conditions varied in the different provinces, and it was a great merit of the Roman system to avoid imposing an unnatural uniformity. In general see G. H. Stevenson, Roman Provincial Administration (1939); E. Badian, Publicans and Sinners (1972).

  11 THE TRIBUNATE AND THE LEX AELIA AND FUFIA. On the tribunes’ increasing independence of the Senate and magistrates see L. R. Taylor, ‘Forerunners of the Gracchi’, JRS, 1962, 19 ff. On the law see A. E. Astin, Latomus, 1964, 421 ff.; A. K. Michels, The Calendar of the Roman Republic (1967), 94 ff.

  12 LEX VILLIA ANNALIS. See A. E. Astin, The Lex Annalis before Sulla (1957).

  13 NOBLE EXCLUSIVENESS. ‘Consulatum nobilitas inter se per manus tradebat’: Sallust, Bell. lug., 63, 3. It is instructive to compare the working of aristocracy in England. It is very exceptional to find a commoner in the Cabinet in the eighteenth century, and in the nineteenth ‘every Cabinet from Lord Grey’s Reform Bill administration to that of Disraeli in 1874 was wholly, or almost wholly, aristocratic. There was this advance from the eighteenth century – that it was not necessary to be a peer in order to be a Cabinet Minister, but birth and connection were almost indispensable to Cabinet rank’ (O. F. Christie, The Transition from Aristocracy, 1832–1867 (1927), 114).

  14 POLITICAL FACTIONS. The ‘prosopographical’ analysis of Roman politics derives mainly from M. Gelzer’s work on the nobility (now translated as The Roman Nobility (1969) by R. Seager) and the development of some of his ideas by F. Münzer, Römische Adelsparteien und Adelsfamilien (1920). For the application of group politics to different periods see F. Cassola, I gruppi politici romani del iii secolo a.C. (1962; on this cf. E. S. Starveley, JRS, 1963, 182 ff.); A. Lippold, Consules… 264 bis 201 v. Chr. (1963); H. H. Scullard, Roman Politics, 220–150 BC, edn 2 (1972); E. Badian, Foreign Clientelae, 264–70 BC (1958). Brief general discussions of method are given by A. E. Astin, Politics and Policies in the Roman Republic (a lecture, 1968) and T. R. S. Broughton, Aufstieg NRW, I, i, 250 ff. On factio see R. Seager, JRS, 1972, 55 ff. While most historians would now agree that the essential nature of Roman political life was personal, they remain divided about the extent to which groups of friends and clients gathered round an individual and on how durable such groups which were held together by ties of family and amicitia (political alliance) may have been. On the ideals of the nobles see D. Earl, The Moral and Political Tradition of Rome (1967).

  15 SCIPIO AFRICANUS. The idea that the people wished to make him perpetual consul and dictator is based on late and unreliable evidence (Livy, xxxviii, 56): see H. H. Scullard, Roman Politics, edn 2 (1972), 83 ff., 282. Scipio’s visit to Delphi in SEG, i, 144. Visit to Delos in 193: Holleaux, Hermes, 1913, 75; in 189: Dittenberger, Sylloge, ii, 617. Decrees proxenia to the Scipios by Aptera in Crete in 189: M. Guarducci, Inscr. Cret., ii, Aptera 5A. Letter to Colophon in 190: M. Holleaux, Riv. d. Fil., 1924, 29 ff. Letter to Heraclea: Dittenberger, Sylloge, ii, 618 and De Sanctis, SR, IV, i, 226 n. and 576 n. On the treaty which terminated the war of Heraclea and Miletus in 180: Dittenberger, Sylloge, ii, 633.

  16 PHILHELLENISM. Two camps: R. M. Haywood, Studies in Scipio Africanus (1933). The idea of A. H. McDonald (JRS, 1938, 155 ff.) that Flamininus supported the old Hellenic ideal of the Greek city-state at the expense of the Hellenistic kingdoms, while Scipio’s policy was based more broadly, has not been accepted by all, though it has much to commend it.

  17 THE TRIAL OF THE SCIPIOS. On this vexed question see P. Fraccaro, I Processi degli Scipioni (1911) and Athenaeum, 1939, 3 ff. (= Opuscula, i, 263 ff., 393 ff.); H. H. Scullard, Roman Politics, 220–150 BC edn 2 (1972), 290 ff. Alternatively to what is said in the text, some maintain that the attack on Africanus occurred in 187 and merely formed an incident in the trial of Lucius; the evidence is inconclusive.

  18 CATO. See D. Kienast, Cato der Zensor (1954); F. della Corte, Cato, edn 2 (1969); H. H. Scullard, Roman Politics, edn 2 (1972), s.v. index; A. E. Astin, Cato the Censor (1978).

  XVI ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL ORGANIZATION

  1 AGRICULTURE. On agriculture and Roman methods see especially K. D. White, Roman Farming (1970); also his Agricultural Implements of the Roman World (1967) and Farm Equipment of the Roman World (1975). Also W. E. Heitland, Agricola (1921).

  2 CHANGING AGRARIAN CONDITIONS. See A. J. Toynbee, Hannibal’s Legacy (1965), ii, chs v– viii; M. Rostovtzeff, Social and Economic History of the Roman Empire, ch. i.

  3 SICILIAN CORN. See T. Frank, Econ. Survey, i, 158 ff.; H. Last, CAH, ix, 4.

  4 ARMY REFORMS. Livy (i, 43, 1; viii, 8, 3) dates the adoption of the long scutum in place of the clipeus either to Servius Tullius or to c. 400 BC, while Sallust (Catil., 51) and the Ineditum Vaticanum believe the Romans borrowed the pilum and scutum during struggles with the Samnites. The looser manipular system may have been introduced at the time of the siege of Veii (an operation for which the older phalanx formation was not suited: see Q. F. Maule and H. R. W. Smith, Votive Religion at Caere (1959), 22 ff.), but if so, it did not prove effective at Allia. The manipular formation is described by Livy (viii, 8) under the year 340, but since a rival Roman tradition (Plutarch, Camillus 40) regards Camillus as a military reformer, some (e.g. L. Homo, CAH, vii, 568) believe that the reform was designed by Camillus against the Gauls. E. T. Salmon (Samnium and the Samnites, 105 ff.) prefers Camillus and the beginning of the fourth century, while F. E. Adcock CAH, vii, 596) argues for the Samnite Wars. On the literary sources for the pre-Marian army see E. Rawson, PBSR, 1971, 13 ff. On the earliest use of the cohort see M. J. V. Bell, Historia, 1965, 404 ff. and E. Rawson, op. cit. Most books on specialized aspects of the Roman army (e.g. H. M. D. Parker, The Roman Legions, edn 2 (1958)) deal only briefly with earlier periods and concentrate on the later Republic and Empire. An excellent picture book, elementary but reliable, The Roman Army (1975) by P. Connolly, well illustrates the formation and weapons of the pre-Marian army (and navy). Standard works include Kromayer-Veith, Heerwesen und Kriegsführung der Griechen und Römer (1928); P. Couissin, Les armes romaines (1926).

  5 LEGIONS IN BEING. The fact that between 200 and 168 BC there were normally eight legions in being (some 42,000 citizens under arms) shows that the standing armies of the Empire were foreshadowed: cf. R. E. Smith, Service in the Post-Marian Army (1958), ch. i. On the total number of troops involved see A. Afzelius, Die römische Eroberung Italiens (340–264 v. Chr.) (1942) and Die röm. Kriegsmacht während der Auseinandersetzung mit den hellenistischen Grossmächten (1944); P. A. Brunt, Manpower (1971), ch. xxiii.

  6 OSTIA. On early Ostia see R. Meiggs, Roman Ostia, edn 2 (1973), ch. 3.

  7 MINING. If a senatorial decree which closed mining in Italy (Pliny, Nat. Hist., xxxiii, 78) belongs to this period, it did not apparently apply to the iron of Elba. On mining in general see J. F. Healy, Mining and Metallurgy in the Greek and Roman World (1978).

  8 SHOP-KEEPERS. The three different signatures on some pottery of c. 200 BC found in a deposit of ‘throw-outs’ from a kiln at Minturnae suggest that the potter was not
an individual but a small syndicate or co-operative group: Amer. J. Arch., 1934, 294.

  9 ROMAN COINAGE. On the early coinage see R. Thomsen, Early Roman Coinage, 3 vols (1957–61); on Republican coinage in general see E. A. Sydenham, Roman Republican Coinage (1952), M. H. Crawford, Roman Republican Coinage (1974). Two wider surveys are H. Mattingly, Roman Coins, edn 2 (1962) and C. H. V. Sutherland, Roman Coins (1974). It is not possible here to enter into problems that have vexed the study of the early coinage, but there is now wider agreement about the date of its inception and that the denarius was introduced in 212/211 BC. On the developments during the Hannibalic War see M. Crawford, JRS, 1964, 29 ff.; and for Hannibal’s and other coinage in Italy at this time see E. S. G. Robinson, Num. Chron., 1964, 37 ff.

  10 WAR BUDGETS. The figures given above for the First Punic War are those of T. Frank (Econ Survey, i, (1933), 61 ff.) who equates the cost of the war, some 100 million denarii, with 24 million American dollars of 1933. He includes the grain received by the allies, but it is probable that though Rome provided food and equipment for the allies, the cost of this (like that of the allied pay: Livy, xxvii, 9, 2) fell on the allies, who will have made an overall payment to Rome: see Polybius, vi, 39, and Walbank, Polybius, i, 722. For the Second Punic War see Frank, op. cit., 76 ff. The figures he gives are only put forward as rough estimates which may give some idea of the relative scale of the various financial operations.

  11 PROPERTY. See De Sanctis, SR, III, ii, 623 ff. and Frank, Econ. Survey, 125 f. Land was worth perhaps 100 denarii an acre in 200 BC.

  12 PRICES. See T. Frank Econ. Survey, i, 188 ff., 208 ff.

  13 SLAVERY. On the revolting conditions in the mines see Strabo, iii, 147, and Diodorus, v, 36. In general see W. L. Westermann. The Slave Systems of Greek and Roman Antiquity (1955); P. A. Brunt, JRS, 1958, 164 ff.; M. I. Finley (ed), Slavery in Classical Antiquity (1960); J. Vogt, Ancient Slavery (1975).

  14 FAMILY LIFE AND SCHOOLING. See J. P. V. D. Balsdon, Life and Leisure in Ancient Rome (1969), ch. iii; H. I. Marrou, History of Education in Antiquity (1958), 229 ff.; S. F. Bonner, Education in Ancient Rome (1977).

  15 GREEK INFLUENCES. See G. Colin, Rome et la Grèce (1905), still a useful collection of material. He assigns the cause primarily to Rome. At the moment when social inequalities, pride and ambition corrupted the Romans, Greece supplied all manner of evil examples.

  16 Cf A. Momigliano, Alien Wisdom (1975), 18 f.

  17 THE CITY. On the architecture of the early city see A. Boethius and J. B. Ward-Perkins, Etruscan and Roman Architecture (1970). On the individual buildings see S. B. Plainer and T. Ashby, Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome (1929) and the splendid complementary work, E. Nash, Pictorial Dictionary of Ancient Rome, 2 vols (1961). See also G. Lugli, Roma antica, Il centro monumentale (1946) and Fontes ad Topographiam Veteris Urbis Romanae Pertinentes, 8 vols (1953–). D. R. Dudley, Urbs Roma (1967) is a source book of selected translated texts. Also M. Grant, The Roman Forum (1970). F. Coarelli, ‘Public Building at Rome from 201 to Sulla’, PBSR, 1977, 1 ff.

  18 FORUM BOARIUM TEMPLES. Hercules Victor: this round temple, near S. Maria in Cosmedin, was destroyed in 1475, when the cult image of gilded bronze was discovered. On the early temples of Fortuna and Mater Matuta see above, p. 000. Either one of the two later well-preserved temples, the pseudoperipteral Ionic, known as Fortuna Virilis, and the round temple known as Vesta or Mater Matuta, may have been dedicated to Portunus, the harbour god.

  19 OTHER AVENTINE BUILDINGS. These included temples to Mercury (495; here was held an annual festival of merchants, mercatores); Jupiter Liberias (dedicated by Ti. Sempronius in 238; his son placed there a picture of his victory at Beneventum in 214); Flora (240); Consus (built in 272 by L. Papirius Cursor whose portrait, as a triumphator, adorned the walls); Venus Obsequens (295, built from fines imposed on women convicted of adultery). On the Basilica Aemilia see Boethius and Ward-Perkins, Etr. Rom. Architecture, 107, E. Nash, Vict. Diet. Anc. Rom., ii, 238 ff.

  20 THE PALATINE. Traces survive of the ‘Servian’ wall, or a contemporary but separate enceinte, in the north-west, and of a separate fort on the west and south sides (the so-called ‘wall of Romulus’). Other shrines included a temple of Jupiter Victor (vowed at Sentinum in 295) and an altar erected to Aius Locutus by the Senate in 390 because the Romans had disregarded a warning voice concerning the Gauls. On the temple of Magna Mater see Arch. Labiale, i, 1978, 67 ff.

  21 VESTA AND THE REGIA. The temple of Vesta contained no statue of the goddess; the foundations of the existing temple, one of the best-known monuments of the Forum, are Augustan. There are no traces of the Atrium Vestae before the second century BC. When the Regia was enlarged in the latter half of the third century it preserved the essential plan of its sixth-century predecessor: see F. E. Brown, Les Origines de la Rép. Rom, Entretiens Hardt, xiii (1966), 477 ff. (cf. p. 454 n. 14 above). The Via Sacra ran between the precincts of Vesta and the Regia.

  22 THE ARX. Other monuments include: Temple of Concord (216); Columna Rostrata in honour of M. Aemilius Paullus, consul in 255, destroyed in 172. The temple of Veiovis stood between the two summits of the Capitoline. It was discovered in 1939; the existing remains belong to a restoration of 78 BC, but below the podium are traces of the first temple, vowed by L. Furius Purpureo in 194.

  23 THE CAMPUS MARTIUS; FORUM HOLITORIUM. Circus Flaminius: recent excavation and new fragments of the Severan marble plan of Rome have shown that its precise site was slightly different from that usually accepted in the past (see Nash, Pict. Dict. Anc. Rome, i, 232, with bibliography). Other temples were: Hercules Custos (c. 221); Hercules Musarum (187; containing Fasti, and statues brought by Nobilior from Ambracia); Jupiter Stator (beneath S. Maria in Campitelli; built by Metellus c. 146). Shrine of Fons, built with booty from Corsica, 231. Four temples were found in 1926–9 in a precinct of Republican date in the Largo Argentina. Their identification is uncertain, but now that the site of the Circus Flaminius has been settled (the temples were ‘in campo’ not ‘in circo’) fresh attempts at identification have been made: see Roma medio repubblicana (Catalogue of the Mostra of the Capitol, 1973): temple A, late, Juno Curitis (?); B, end of second century, aedes Catuli (?); C, fourth century, Feronia; D, beginning of second century, Lares Permarini (?). For photographs see Nash, Pict. Dict., i, 136 ff. Forum Holitorium: Janus, built by Duilius after Mylae; Spes (First Punic War); Juno (194). A temple of Pietas, vowed by Glabrio at Thermopylae (191) contained a gilded statue of Glabrio, the first of its kind in Rome. On the Circus Flaminius see T. P. Wiseman, PBSR, 1974, 44 ff.

  24 QUOTATIONS. See F. de Zulueta, The Legacy of Rome (1923), 175; 186.

  25 ROMAN LAW. See H. F. Jolowicz, Historical Introduction to the Study of Roman Law, edn 3 (1972), to which I am particularly indebted here; W. Kunkel, Introduction to Roman Legal and Constitutional History (1966); B. Nicolas, Introduction to Roman Law (1962); J. Crook, Roman Law and Life (1967); F. Schulz, Principles of Roman Law (1936), History of Roman Legal Science (1946), Classical Roman Law (1951); A. Berger, Encyclopedic Dictionary of Roman Law (1951); A. Watson, Roman Private Law around 200 BC. (1971), rather specialized, and Rome of the XII Tables: persons and property (1976).

  XVII LITERATURE AND ART

  1 LATIN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. On the language see L. R. Palmer, The Latin Language (1954); A. Meillet, Esquisse d’une histoire de la langue Latine, edn 4 (1930). On literature: J. Wight Duff, A Literary History of Rome from the Origins to Close of the Golden Age, edn 3 (1953); T. Frank, Life and Literature in the Roman Republic (1930); H. J. Rose, Handbook of Latin Literature, edn 2 (1950); W. Beare, The Roman Stage, edn 2 (1955).

  2 BALLAD POETRY. See A. Momigliano, JRS, 1957, 104 ff. (= Secondo Contrib., 69 ff.).

  3 SATURNIAN VERSE. The stock line comes from Naevius: ‘Dabunt malum Metelli Naevio poetae’. The question is still unsettled whether Saturnian verse is accentual, semi-quantitative, or quantitative. If accentual, based on the minstrel’s beat, the accent probably
falls on the first, not on the second syllable (dábunt, málum), so that we must reject the famous example: ‘The queen was in her parlour, eating bread and honey’. The verse may then have been affected later by Greek quantitative scansion.

  4 ACTORS. It is possible that this social stigma was a later phenomenon, and even then did not apply to all branches of acting alike. There was, however, little to stimulate the acting profession in Rome, so that later dramatists often acted in their own plays. By 200 BC only six days were set apart for dramatic performances. Drama had no religious associations in Rome as in Greece. Atellan farces may perhaps have derived from the Dorian farces of Magna Graecia.

  5 LIVIUS ANDRONICUS. Horace (Ep., ii, 1, 62) wrote: ‘Ad nostrum tempus Livi scriptoris ab aevo’. Cf. the lines of Porcius Licinus (second half of the second century BC): ‘Poenico bello secundo Musa pinnato gradu/Intulit se bellicosam in Romuli gentem feram’.

  6 NAEVIUS. The tradition about his imprisonment has been questioned (e.g. more recently again by H. B. Mattingly, Historia, 1960, 414 ff.), but wartime censorship may have muzzled free speech to an unparalleled extent. See T. Frank, AJPhil., 1927, 105 ff. The charge would be made under the restriction imposed by the Twelve Tables on offensive carmina. See A. Momigliano, JRS, 1942, 120 ff. Contaminatio may mean adapting borrowed scenes (so W. Beare) rather than interweaving two plots.

  7 ENNIUS. See Ennius (Entretiens Hardt, xvii, 1971), especially ch. iv by E. Badian on the tradition about the poet’s friends in Rome.

  8 ROMAN ART. See R. B. Bandinelli, Rome, the Centre of Power (1971); J. M. C. Toynbee, The Art of the Romans (1956).

  9 ETRUSCAN ART. For a critical assessment cf. S. Casson, CAH, iv, 442. But see also D. Randall-Maclver, The Etruscans (1927); J. D. Beazley, Etruscan Vase-Painting (1947); P. J. Riis, Etruscan Art (1953) and other works cited above, p. 446 n. 30.