Fixing the Sky
Page 37
17 Abbe, “Cannonade Against Hail Storms,” 738–739.
18 Caldwell, “Some Kansas Rain Makers,” 309.
19 Spence, Rainmakers, 52–63.
20 “Current Notes,” 192.
21 “Kansas All Right Now She Has Ten Rainmaking Outfits Ready for Service,” St. Louis Republic, April 25, 1894, 12
22 “A Successful Rainmaker: How Clayton B. Jewell Coaxes Moisture from Cloudless Skies,” Columbus Enquirer-Sun, August 12, 1894, 6.
23 Tate and Tate, Good Old Days Country Wisdom, 95–96.
24 “Unfortunate Rain-maker,” 735.
25 Quoted in T. E. Murtaugh, “Rainmaker C. M. Hatfield as Seen at Close Range,” Los Angeles Examiner, March 19, 1904, reprinted in San Antonio Daily Express, April 2, 1905, 8.
26 Moore, “Fake Rainmaking,” 153.
27 Patterson, “Hatfield the Rainmaker,” n.p.
28 “Fake Rainmaker,” 84.
29 Canada, House of Commons, Official Report of Debates, 562
30 Tuthill, “Hatfield the Rainmaker,” 107–110.
31 Jenkins, Wizard of Sun City, 5–6.
32 Patterson, “Hatfield the Rainmaker,” n.p.; Spence, Rainmakers, 79–99.
33 Seattle Post Intelligencer, July 17, 1920, reprinted in Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 1 (1920): 80–82.
34 “Rain Maker Asked to Turn Off Faucets,” Wyoming State Tribune, May 23, 1921, 2.
35 “Rainmaker Makes Hit: Dr. Hatfield Biggest Hero in Italy Today,” Morning Oregonian , September 2, 1922, 4; “Rainmaker Fails,” 591.
36 Carpenter, “Alleged Manufacture of Rain,” 377.
37 Liebling, Honest Rainmaker, 9.
38 “Sykes Sells Sunshine,” 40; Spence, Rainmakers, 128–131.
39 Liebling, Honest Rainmaker, 38.
40 “Belmont Park to Test Rainmaker’s Magic,” New York Times, September 10, 1930, 23; “Rainmaker Fails in Test,” New York Times, September 16, 1930, 11; Liebling, Honest Rainmaker, 47–48.
41 Goodstein, “Tales in and out of ‘Millikan’s School,’” n.p.
42 Fleming, “Sverre Petterssen,” 79.
43 Petterssen, Weathering the Storm, 181–182.
44 DuBridge interview.
45 Roger Hammond to Irving Langmuir, February 3, 1950, copy in Vonnegut Papers.
46 Willard Haselbach, “‘Rain Maker of the Rockies’: History’s Biggest Weather Experiment Underway,” Denver Post, April 22, 1951, 17A.
47 “Brief History of Artificial Weather”; Changnon, “Paradox of Planned Weather Modification,” 29.
48 James Y. Nicol, “Weather’s Miracle Man,” Star Weekly Magazine, April 6, 1957, 10–11.
49 Kobler, “Stormy Sage,” 69–70.
50 Bundgaard and Cale, “Irving P. Krick.”
51 “Biography,” Wilhelm Reich Museum, http://www.wilhelmreichmuseum.org/biography.html (accessed January 20, 2010).
52 “Cloudbuster.”
53 “Goodbye Chemtrails.”
54 Webb County Commissioners, “Official Minutes,” April 14, 2003.
55 Raul Casso, Webb County, Texas, chief of staff (2003), in Berler, KGNS-TV broadcasts.
56 Berler, KGNS-TV broadcasts.
57 Guerra, “Stormy Weather,” 6.
58 McAdie, “Natural Rain-makers,” 77.
59 Carpenter, “Alleged Manufacture of Rain,” 376–377.
60 Jordan, “Art of Pluviculture.”
61 Humphreys, Rain Making, vii.
62 National Academy of Sciences, Critical Issues, 3–4.
63 Fleming, “Fixing the Weather”; Fleming, “The Pathological History.”
4. Foggy Thinking
1 McAdie, “Control of Fog,” 36.
2 Shakespeare, Hamlet, act 2, scene 2; Coleridge, Rime of the Ancient Mariner, 12; Doyle, Study in Scarlet, 27.
3 Abbe, “Tugrin Fog Dispeller,” 17.
4 Williams, Climate of Great Britain, cited in Jankovic, Reading the Skies, 1.
5 Fleming, Meteorology in America, 26–27.
6 Lodge, “Electrical Precipitation,” 34.
7 Balsillie, “Process and Apparatus for Causing Precipitation.”
8 Bancroft to Warren, August 23, 1920, Bancroft Papers.
9 Warren to Bancroft, May 21, 1921, Bancroft Papers.
10 Chaffee, “Second Report on Dust Charging.”
11 Warren to Bancroft, September 19, 1921, Bancroft Papers.
12 “Fliers Bring Rain with Electric Sand,” New York Times, February 12, 1923, 3.
13 “Wright Sees Sand Rip Clouds Away,” New York Times, February 18, 1923, E1.
14 Smith, “Dr. Warren—Rain Maker.”
15 Warren to Bancroft, July 11, 1922, Bancroft Papers.
16 Talman, “Can We Control the Weather?”
17 “Rain-making Not Feasible Says U.S. Weather Bureau,” U.S. Department of Agriculture press release, March 21, 1923, New York Tribune and New York Times, clippings in Bancroft Papers.
18 Ibid.
19 Cornell Daily Sun, March 24, 1923, clipping in Bancroft Papers.
20 McFadden, “Is Rainmaking Riddle Solved?” 30.
21 Warren, Facts and Plans, 26.
22 “Miracle.”
23 Warren, Facts and Plans, 7.
24 “Dispersal of Clouds Here Accomplished,” Hartford Courant, June 19, 1926, 1; “The Rainmaker Comes to Town,” Hartford Courant, June 20, 1926, D1; “Rainmaker Successful for 2d Time,” Hartford Courant, August 25, 1926, 1.
25 Warren to Bancroft, telegram, June 18, 1926, Bancroft Papers.
26 “Rainmaker’s Work in City Is Completed,” Hartford Courant, October 22, 1926, 1.
27 Warren, Facts and Plans, 17.
28 Warren to Bancroft, April 7, 1927, May 4, 1928, and February 21, 1929, Bancroft Papers.
29 Servos, “Wilder D. Bancroft,” 4. Spence calls this episode “scientific,” but it was not (Rainmakers, 103–115).
30 Quoted in Houghton and Radford, “On the Local Dissipation,” 5.
31 Bergeron, “On the Physics”; Bergeron, “Some Autobiographic Notes.”
32 Houghton and Radford, “On the Local Dissipation,” 13–26.
33 Houghton Papers.
34 “Fog Broom,” n.p.
35 Bowles and Houghton, “Method for the Local Dissipation,” 48–51; “Controlled Weather,” 205; Wylie, M.I.T. in Perspective, 80–81.
36 Houghton to N. McL. Sage, July 18, 1940, Office of the President, Institute Archives, MIT.
37 Houghton and Radford, “On the Local Dissipation,” 6.
38 Quoted in Fleming, Callendar Effect, 51.
39 Humphreys, Rain Making; Brunt, “Artificial Dissipation”; Ogden, “Fog Dispersal.”
40 “FIDO Conference Program”; Banks, Flame over Britain.
41 Records of the Petroleum Warfare Department, British National Archives; Banks, Flame over Britain.
42 “FIDO Conference Program.”
43 Banks, Flame over Britain, 148–150.
44 Williams, Flying Through Fire, 20.
45 Banks, Flame over Britain.
46 Clarke, “Man-Made Weather,” 188.
47 Ogden, “Fog Dispersal,” 34.
48 Fleming, Callendar Effect, 56–59.
49 Ibid., 59–60.
50 Ibid., 60; Ogden, “Fog Dispersal,” 38.
51 Gregg, “Address at the Dedication Ceremonies.”
52 “U.S. Weather Chief Hails Achievement of Air Conditioning,” Chicago Tribune, July 12, 1934, 4.
53 Devereaux, “Meteorological Service of the Future,” 217.
54 Mindling, “Raymete and the Future.”
55 Devereaux, “Meteorological Service of the Future,” 218.
5. Pathological Science
1 Rosenfeld, Quintessence of Irving Langmuir; Suits and Martin, “Irving Langmuir”; Fleming, “Pathological History,” 8–12.
2 Langmuir, “Pathological Science.”
3 Fleagle, “Second Opinions,” 100.
4 Quoted in Langmui
r, “Pathological Science,” 11–12.
5 Associated Press, “Panel Finds Misconduct by Controversial Fusion Scientist,” July 18, 2008, http://www.cbc.ca/news/story/2008/07/18/fusion-misconduct.html.
6 Schaefer, autobiography, chap. 6, Schaefer Papers.
7 Langmuir, “Growth of Particles,” 167–174; Smoke Generation (1940–1947), Schaefer Papers.
8 Schaefer interview; Schaefer to C. Guy Suits, October 10, 1946, Schaefer Papers.
9 Lambright, Weather Modification.
10 Gathman, “Method of Producing Rainfall,” 1; Gathman, Rain Produced at Will, 27–28.
11 Sanford, “Rain-Making,” 490–491.
12 “Who Owns the Clouds?” 43.
13 McAdie, “Natural Rain-makers,” 80.
14 “Clouds Sprayed,” 418.
15 Grunow, “Der Künstliche Regen,” 602.
16 Veraart, Meer zonneschijn.
17 Quoted in Kramer and Rigby, “Selective and Annotated Bibliography,” 191–192.
18 Byers, “History of Weather Modification,” 5–6.
19 Schaefer Laboratory Notebook, July 12, 1946, Schaefer Papers.
20 Schaefer interview.
21 Langmuir Laboratory Notebook, July 1946, Langmuir Papers.
22 Schaefer interview.
23 Schaefer Laboratory Notebook, July 31, 1946, Schaefer Papers.
24 Schaefer to Suits, October 10, 1946, Schaefer Papers.
25 Croy, “Rainmakers,” 214.
26 Press release, November 13, 1946, GE Archives.
27 “Scientist Creates Real Snowflakes,” New York Times, November 14, 1946, 33.
28 Press release, November 13, 1946, GE Archives; Schaefer, “Production of Ice Crystals”; Byers, “History of Weather Modification.”
29 Schaefer Laboratory Notebook, November 13, 1946, Schaefer Papers.
30 Suits to V. H. Fraenckel, November 13, 1946, Schaefer Papers.
31 Press release, November 14, 1946, GE Archives.
32 New York Times, November 15, 1946, 24; Boston Globe, November 15, 1946, 1.
33 Schaefer Papers.
34 General Electric Corporation, 56th Annual Report, 27.
35 Fleming, “Fixing the Weather,” 177.
36 Goldstein to GE, November 18, 1946, copy in Schaefer Papers.
37 Goldston, “Legal Entanglements”; Langmuir, “Summary of Results.”
38 Havens, “History of Project Cirrus,” 13.
39 “Interim Report.”
40 “Project Cirrus” (1952), 13.
41 “Law Asked to Bar Suits Against the Rainmakers,” New York Times, January 13, 1949, 25.
42 “Many Legal Entanglements.”
43 “Project Cirrus” (1950), 287.
44 Schaefer interview; Droessler, “Federal Government Activities,” 253.
45 Doubleday, “Air Force Activities”; Byers, “History of Weather Modification,” 16–17.
46 News clippings, including New York Times, October 12, 1947, 24; Albany Times-Union , October 12, 1947, n.p.; Christian Science Monitor, October 14, 1947, 10; Los Angeles Times, October 14, 1947, 1, Schaefer Papers.
47 Larry Murray, “Hurricane Study Only Begun, Says Schaefer,” October 17, 1947, clipping in Schaefer Papers.
48 Langmuir, “Growth of Particles,” 183–185.
49 Enders to Suits, November 13, 1947, with clipping enclosed, “Dry Ice and a Crazy Hurricane,” Schaefer Papers.
50 Schaefer, “Preliminary Report.”
51 Langmuir, “Growth of Particles,” 185.
52 Richard Gray, “U.S. Government Aims to Tame Hurricanes,” Daily Telegraph, August 2, 2008, http://www.telegraph.co.uk.
53 Vonnegut, “Nucleation of Ice,” 593–595.
54 Vonnegut interview.
55 Vonnegut Laboratory Notebook, November 1946, Vonnegut Papers.
56 Vonnegut interview.
57 Press release, October 21, 1947, GE Archives.
58 Vonnegut interview.
59 Havens, Juisto, and Vonnegut, Early History.
60 Vonnegut interview.
61 Langmuir, “Report on Evaluation,” 23.
62 Petterssen, Weathering the Storm, 293–294.
63 Langmuir, “Seven Day Periodicity”; Brier, “7-Day Periodicities.”
64 Suits to Langmuir, August 26, 1949, copy in Vonnegut Papers.
65 Press release, January 2, 1950, GE Archives.
66 Langmuir, “Abstract of Remarks, Oct. 1950,” GE Archives.
67 Hosler, “Weather Modification”; Steinberg, Slide Mountain, 106–134, 191–194.
68 Langmuir, note card, “TV Aug. 24, 8:33 am, Dave Garroway, Today,” after 1953, Langmuir Papers.
69 “Review of Savannah Hurricane.”
70 “Rain Making Ineffective,” 375; Reichelderfer, “Letter,” 38.
71 “Scientist Would Move Rain Tests to South Pacific,” Albuquerque Tribune, April 29, 1955, 50, clipping in Schaefer Papers.
72 Langmuir, “Report on Evaluation,” 23.
73 “Scientist Would Move Rain Tests,” 50.
74 Langmuir, “Production of Rain”; Langmuir, “Report on Evaluation,” 23; “Langmuir Predicts Hurricane Prevention,” Washington Post, August 25, 1955, 2.
75 Elliott, “Experience of the Private Sector”; “City Flip-Flop on Rainmaking,” Daily News, November 5, 1951, clipping in Schaefer Papers; Landsberg, “Memorandum for the Record.”
76 Science of Superstorms (British Broadcasting Corporation).
77 Ibid., cited in Richard Gray, “How We Made the Chernobyl Rain,” Sunday Telegraph , April 22, 2007, n.p.
78 Science of Superstorms (British Broadcasting Corporation).
79 Ibid.
6. Weather Warriors
1 Owning the Weather (Greene).
2 Stephan Farris, “Ice Free,” New York Times, July 27, 2008, MM 20.
3 Fuller, Weather and War; Fuller, Thor’s Legions.
4 Fleming, “Sverre Petterssen,” 75–83.
5 Polybius, Universal History, bk. 8; Rossi, Birth of Modern Science.
6 Hacker, “Military Patronage”; Mendelsohn, “Science, Scientists.”
7 McNeill, Pursuit of Power; Fleming, “Distorted Support.”
8 Gillispie, Science and Polity.
9 U.S. Army Medical Department, “Regulations,” 227.
10 Fleming, “Storms, Strikes, and Sur veillance”; see also Whitnah, History of the United States Weather Bureau, 22–42; and Hawes, “Signal Corps.”
11 Bates and Fuller, America’s Weather Warriors, 16–26; Fleming, “Distorted Support,” 51–53.
12 Fleming, “Fixing the Weather and Climate,” 176.
13 Ibid., 175–176.
14 Teller, Memoirs, 253.
15 Simpson and Simpson, “Why Experiment?”; news clippings in Schaefer Papers.
16 “Weather Control Called ‘Weapon,’” New York Times, December 10, 1950, 68.
17 Suits, “Statement on Weather Control.”
18 V. H. Fraenckel to C. Guy Suits, telegram, 1947; W. H. Milton Jr. to C. Guy Suits, September 2, 1947, Schaefer Papers.
19 R. E. Evans to Vincent Schaefer, December 10, 1947, Schaefer Papers.
20 Vincent Schaefer to C. J. Brasefield, May 4, 1948; Vincent Schaefer to Michael J. Ference Jr., May 13, 1948, and reply May 14, 1948, Schaefer Papers.
21 Kobler, “Stormy Sage,” 70.
22 Byers, “History of Weather Modification,” 13.
23 Petterssen, Weathering the Storm, 295.
24 Droessler, Federal Government Activities, 254.
25 Byers, “History of Weather Modification,” 25–27.
26 Petterssen, Cloud and Weather Modification.
27 Act of Congress, August 13, 1953 (67 Stat. 559), as amended July 9, 1956 (70 Stat. 509); U.S. Library of Congress, Congressional Research Service, Weather Modification.
28 Orville, “Weather Made to Order?” 26.
29 Nate Haseltine, “Cold War May Spawn Weather-Control Race,” Washington Post and Time
s Herald, December 23, 1957, A1.
30 Quoted in “Weather Weapon,” 54.
31 Fedorov, “Modification of Meteorological Processes,” 391.
32 Quoted in Arthur Krock, “An Inexpensive Start at Controlling the Weather,” New York Times, March 23, 1961, 32.
33 U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, “Hurricane Research Division History”; Willoughby et al., “Project STORMFURY.”
34 Gentry, “Hurricane Modification,” 497.
35 U.S. Navy, “Technical Area Plan,” 1.
36 Simpson interview.
37 Science of Superstorms (British Broadcasting Corporation).
38 Simpson interview; MacDonald, “Statement”; Fleming, “Distorted Support.”
39 Jack Anderson, “Air Force Turns Rainmaker in Laos,” Washington Post, March 18, 1971), F7; Seymour M. Hersh, “Rainmaking Is Used as a Weapon by U.S.,” New York Times, July 3, 1972, 1.
40 Cobb et al., Project Popeye.
41 Science of Superstorms (British Broadcasting Corporation).
42 Fleming, “Pathological History,” 13.
43 Fuller, Air Weather Service Support, 30–32.
44 “Motorpool.”
45 Shapley, “Weather Warfare,” 1059–1061; Westmoreland, Soldier Reports, 342.
46 Appleman et al., Fourth Annual Survey Report.
47 Chary, History of Air Weather Service Weather Modification, abstract.
48 National Academy of Sciences, Weather and Climate Modification, 24.
49 Fleming, “Pathological History,” 13.
50 “Dienbienphu Push Renewed by Reds,” New York Times, April 23, 1954, 2.
51 Contributions to the History of Dien Bien Phu, 201.
52 Doel and Harper, “Prometheus Unleashed.”
53 Science of Superstorms (British Broadcasting Corporation).
54 Handler to Pell, July 25, 1972, in U.S. Senate, Prohibiting Military Weather Modification , 153.
55 Quoted in U.S. House of Representatives, Prohibition of Weather Modification, 5; Munk, Oreskes, and Muller, “Gordon James Fraser MacDonald.”
56 “Hearing on Senate Resolution 281”; Congressional Record, July 11, 1973, 233303–5.
57 Seymour M. Hersh, “U.S. Admits Rain-Making from ’67 to ’72 in Indochina,” New York Times, May 19, 1974, 1; U.S. House of Representatives, Weather Modification as a Weapon.
58 Gromyko to United Nations secretary-general, August 7, 1974, in U.S. House of Representatives, Weather Modification as a Weapon, 11–12.