271 Unit 2100 facility at Al-Haditha: Paul Salopek, “Saddam Tested Deadly Weapons on Humans, Accounts Say,” Chicago Tribune, July 16, 2003.
271 Mass execution of Iraqi political prisoners with nerve gas: Ibid.
271 Construction of chemical plants at Fallujah: Timmerman, The Death Lobby, pp. 232–233.
271 Iraqi production of Cyclosarin: UNMOVIC, “Unresolved Disarmament Issues,” p. 143.
272 Iraqi development of VX: Ibid., pp. 80–82.
272 Letter from General Nazar al-Khazarji: Ibid., p. 143.
272 Poor quality of Iraqi VX: Author’s interview with Ron Manley.
272–73 Iran’s production and use of chemical weapons: Gregory F. Giles, “The Islamic Republic of Iran and Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical Weapons,” in Lavoy, Sagan, and Wirtz, Planning the Unthinkable, pp. 79–103.
273 Chemical Research Institute at Nukus: Judith Miller, “U.S. and Uzbeks Agree on Chemical Arms Plant Cleanup,” New York Times, May 25, 1999, p. A3.
273–74 Accidental poisoning of Zheleznyakov: Wise, Cassidy’s Run, pp. 191–192; Will Englund, “Russia Still Doing Secret Work on Chemical Arms,” Baltimore Sun, October 18, 1992, p. 1A; author’s interview with Vil S. Mirzayanov.
275 Gorbachev’s act of “diplomatic jujitsu”: Michael Krepon, “Verification of a Chemical Weapons Convention,” in Roberts, ed., Chemical Disarmament and US Security, p. 81.
275–76 “Open house” at Shikhany Central Chemical Weapons Testing Site: A. Gorokhov and A. Serbin, “Trust: Report from the Soviet Shikhany Military Installation,” Pravda (in Russian), October 4, 1987, p. 6 [translated in FBIS-SOV-87-196, October 9, 1987, pp. 5–7].
277 “The visit was very carefully orchestrated”: “Soviets Reveal CW Capabilities,” International Defense Review, vol. 20 (November 1987), p. 1453.
277 Statement of General Pilakov: Gorokhov and Serbin, “Trust: Report from the Soviet Shikhany Military Installation.”
277 Soviets concealed several aspects of chemical arsenal: Gary Thatcher, “Soviet Chemical Arsenal: How Superior Is It?,” Christian Science Monitor, December 14, 1988, pp. B1–B9; Boris Libman, “Lack of Confidence Between the American and Russian Parties,” Communiqué no. 36 (report prepared for the U.S. Army Chemical Corps, handwritten manuscript, undated).
277–78 Faked demonstration of nerve-agent neutralization: Author’s interview with Vil S. Mirzayanov.
278 Start of production of M687 binary artillery shell: U.S. Congress, General Accounting Office, “Status of the Army’s M687 Binary Program,” Report No. GAO/NSIAD-90-295 (September 1990), p. 3.
278–79 No commercial company was willing to supply dichlor: Lois Ember, “Army Seeks Firms to Make Nerve Gas,” Chemical and Engineering News, August 23, 1982, pp. 32, 34.
280 Anfal campaign against the Iraqi Kurds: Physicians for Human Rights, “Winds of Death: Iraq’s Use of Poison Gas Against Its Kurdish Population,” February 1989; James Bruce and Tony Banks, “Growing Concern over Iraqi Use of CW,” Jane’s Defence Weekly, September 24, 1988, p. 715.
280 Ali Hassan al-Majid statement, “I will kill them all.”: Christopher Dickey and Evan Thomas, “How Saddam Happened,” Newsweek, September 23, 2002, p. 37.
280 Description of Iraqi Kurdish town of Halabja: Pamela Constable, “Cloud over Halabja Begins to Dissipate,” Washington Post, August 7, 2003, p. A10.
280 Saddam ordered a “special strike”: Ghassan Shirbil, “Opening His Books, Al-Khazarji: ‘Saddam Ordered Bombing Halabja with Chemical Weapons After Receiving a False Report,’ ” Al-Hayah (London), in Arabic, November 28, 2002, p. 10; translated in FBIS, document no. GMP20021128000095.
281 Chemical attack against Halabja: C. J. Chivers, “Still Suffering from ’88 Gas Attack, a Village Distrusts Iraq’s Arms Report,” New York Times, December 11, 2002, p. A22; Christine Gosden and Mike Amitay, “Lesson of Iraq’s Mass Murder,” Washington Post, June 2, 2002, p. B7; “The Trial of ‘Chemical Ali,’ ” Washington Times, December 20, 2004, p. 20.
281 Description in Human Rights Watch report: Human Rights Watch, Genocide in Iraq: The Anfal Campaign Against the Kurds (New York: Human Rights Watch, July 1993), available online at http://hrw.org/reports/1993/iraqanfal/ANFAL3.htm.
281–82 Flight of refugees from Halabja: Len Kelly, Dale Dewar, and Bill Curry, “Experiencing Chemical Warfare: Two Physicians Tell Their Story of Halabja in Northern Iraq,” Canadian Journal of Rural Medicine, vol. 9, no. 3 (Summer 2004), pp. 178–182.
282 Casualties from Halabja attack: U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Public Affairs, “Saddam’s Chemical Weapons Campaign: Halabja, March 16, 1988,” March 14, 2003.
282 U.S. intelligence intercepted Iraqi radio messages: James Bruce and Tony Banks, “Growing Concern over Iraqi Use of CW,” Jane’s Defence Weekly, September 24, 1988, p. 715.
282–83 Account by British correspondent: David Hirst, “Iran Puts Dead on Show After Gas Raid,” The Guardian, March 22, 1988, p. 1.
283–84 Type of nerve agent used in Halabja attack: Author’s interview with Ron Manley; author’s interview with Julian Perry Robinson.
284 Iraq denied request by U.N. Secretary-General to investigate: Bruce and Banks, “Growing Concern over Iraqi Use of CW.”
284 U.S. government accused Iran as well as Iraq: Joost R. Hiltermann, “Iran’s Nuclear Posture and the Scars of War,” Middle East Report Online, January 18, 2005, www.merip.org/mero/mero011805.htm.
284 U.N. Security Council Resolution 598: United Nations, “Resolution 598 (1987) of 20 July 1987,” Resolutions and Decisions of the Security Council 1987 (New York: United Nations, 1988), pp. 5–6.
284 Iraqi use of nerve agents at Al-Fao: Lee Waters, “Chemical Weapons in the Iran/Iraq War,” Military Review, vol. 70 (October 1990), pp. 57–63.
284 Battlefield tour by Lieutenant Colonel Francona: R. Jeffrey Smith, “Relying on Chemical Arms: Early Use Was Central to Recent Iraqi Battle Tactics,” Washington Post, August 10, 1990, pp. A25, A27.
285 War of the cities: Ephraim Karsh, “Rational Ruthlessness: Non-Conventional and Missile Warfare in the Iran-Iraq War,” in Karsh, Navias, and Sabin, eds., Non-Conventional Weapons Proliferation in the Middle East, p. 41.
285 Iraqi plan for chemical attack on Tehran: Amatzia Baram, “An Analysis of Iraqi WMD Strategy,” The Nonproliferation Review, vol. 8, no. 2 (Summer 2001), p. 29.
285 Mass evacuation of Tehran: Chaim Herzog, “A Military-Strategic Overview,” in Karsh, ed., The Iran-Iraq War: Impact and Implications, p. 263.
285 Psychological impact of Iraqi chemical threat: Thomas L. McNaugher, “Ballistic Missiles and Chemical Weapons: The Legacy of the Gulf War,” International Security, vol. 15 (Fall 1990), p. 22.
285 Iranian chemical casualties: Giles, “The Islamic Republic of Iran and Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical Weapons,” p. 83; Scott Peterson, “Lessons from Iran on Facing Chemical War,” Christian Science Monitor, November 19, 2002.
286 Physicians for Human Rights investigation: Physicians for Human Rights, Winds of Death: Iraq’s Use of Poison Gas Against Its Kurdish Population, Report of a Medical Mission to Turkish Kurdistan (Cambridge, Mass.: PHR, February 1989).
286 Analysis of soil samples from bomb craters: Lois Ember, “Chemical Weapons: Residues Verify Iraqi Use on Kurds,” Chemical and Engineering News, vol. 711 (May 3, 1993), p. 8.
286 Flora Lewis warning: Flora Lewis, “Move to Stop Iraq,” New York Times, September 14, 1988, p. A31.
286 Statement by Robert Gates: Robert M. Gates, Deputy Director, Central Intelligence Agency, “The CIA and the University,” address before the Association of Former Intelligence Officers, October 10, 1987, Periscope, vol. 12, no. 4 (1987), pp. 17–19.
286–87 Statement by Ali Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani: Islamic Republic News Agency (IRNA), Tehran, English broadcast, transcribed in FBIS Daily Report: Near East and South Asia, October 19, 1988, pp. 55–56.
287 Iran contracted with the Swiss company Krebs AG: Lois Ember, “U.S. Vexed by Spread of
Chemical Weapons,” Chemical & Engineering News, March 27, 1989, p. 23.
287 Krebs plant at Abu Za’abal, Egypt: Michael R. Gordon and Stephen Engelberg, “Egypt Accused of Big Advance in Gas for War,” New York Times, March 10, 1989, pp. A1, A2; Christopher Walker, “Egypt Denies Claim That It Is Building Poison Gas Factory,” The Times (London), March 11, 1989, p. 8; Michael R. Gordon and Stephen Engelberg, “Poison Gas Fears Lead U.S. to Plan New Export Curbs,” New York Times, March 26, 1989, p. A1; Dany Shoham, “Chemical and Biological Weapons in Egypt,” The Nonproliferation Review, vol. 5, no. 3 (Spring–Summer 1998), p. 50.
287 Syrian chemical weapons program: M. Zuhair Diab, “Syria’s Chemical and Biological Weapons: Assessing Capabilities and Motivations,” The Nonproliferation Review, vol. 5, no. 1 (Fall 1997), pp. 104–111; Ahmed S. Hashim, Chemical and Biological Weapons and Deterrence, Case Study 1: Syria (Washington, D.C.: Chemical and Biological Arms Control Institute, 1998), pp. 5–9; Magnus Nor-mark et al., Syria and WMD: Incentives and Capabilities (Umeå: Swedish Defence Research Agency, FOI-R-1290-SE, June 2004), pp. 34–37.
287 Syria sought chemical weapons as a deterrent: Walter Pincus, “Syria Built Arsenal as ‘Equalizer,’ ” Washington Post, April 17, 2003, p. A30.
287 Syrian acquisition of Western chemical technology: Gazit, ed., The Middle East Military Balance, 1993–1994, p. 229; “Middle East Chemical Weapons,” MEDNEWS: Middle East Defense News, vol. 2, no. 2–3 (October 24, 1988), p. 5; Dany Shoham, “Guile, Gas and Germs: Syria’s Ultimate Weapons,” Middle East Quarterly, vol. 9, no. 3 (Summer 2002), available online at www.meforum.org/article/493.
287 Three Syrian chemical weapons production facilities: “Syria’s Secret Weapons,” Jane’s Intelligence Digest, May 2, 2003.
287–88 Syrian Scud missiles with chemical warheads: Arieh O’Sullivan, “Does Syria Really Have a War Option?,” Jerusalem Post, January 11, 2000; Ze’ev Schiff, “Syrian Scud Fired with Chemical Warhead,” Ha’aretz, July 13, 2001; Dany Shoham, “Poisoned Missiles: Syria’s Doomsday Deterrent,” Middle East Quarterly, vol. 9, no. 4 (Fall 2002), available online at www.meforum.org/article/510.
288 Integration of nerve-agent warheads with ballistic missiles: David B. Ottaway, “Middle East Weapons Proliferate: Concern Heightened by Chemical Arms, Missile Capabilities,” Washington Post, December 19, 1988, p. A1.
CHAPTER FIFTEEN: PEACE AND WAR
289 Director-general of Muthanna wrote to senior Iraqi officials: UNMOVIC, “Unresolved Disarmament Issues: Iraq’s Proscribed Weapons Programmes” (Working Document), March 6, 2003, p. 143.
289 Iraqi development of field-mixed chemical weapon: Ibid., pp. 71–72, 144.
290 Iraqi development of “true” binary artillery shell: Ibid., p. 72.
290 Further development of manufacturing process for VX: UNSCOM, “Note for the File” [interrogation of General Hussein Kamel in Amman, Jordan, August 22, 1995], pp. 12–13.
290 Iraq produced a VX intermediate known as “dibis”: UNMOVIC, “Unresolved Disarmament Issues,” pp. 80–82.
290–91 Controversy over the Army’s access to thionyl chloride: Tony Capaccio, “Army Pressing Defiant Firms for Nerve Gas Ingredient,” Defense Week, vol. 11, no. 14 (March 26, 1990), p. 15; R. Jeffrey Smith, “Suppliers Reject Poison Gas Program; U.S. May Act,” Washington Post, March 27, 1990, p. A5; Lois Ember, “Chemical Weapons: Firms Deny Sale of Chemical to Army,” Chemical & Engineering News, April 2, 1990, p. 4.
292 Marquardt Corporation linked to “Ill Wind” scandal: John M. Broder, “Cheney Prepares to Halt All Chemical Weapons Output,” Los Angeles Times, July 12, 1990, p. A22.
292 Trial inspection at DuPont plant: Federation of American Scientists, “Chemical Weapons Convention Chronology,” available online at www.fas.org/nuke/control/cwc/chron.htm.
292 Baker and Shevardnadze signed Wyoming MOU: Federation of American Scientists, “U.S.-Russian Wyoming Memorandum of Understanding on Chemical Weapons,” available online at www.fas.org/nuke/control/cwc/news/cwmou.htm.
293 President Bush speech to U.N. General Assembly: The White House, Office of the Press Secretary, “The President’s Chemical Weapons Initiative,” September 25, 1989.
293 United States would retain option to keep producing binary weapons: Michael R. Gordon, “Bush Keeps Option to Make Poison Gas,” New York Times, October 15, 1989, p. 8.
294 Criticism of U.S. proposal to retain a security stockpile: John Isaacs, “Where Does Bush Stand on Chemical Weapons?” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, December 1989, p. 3; “Banning Chemical Weapons,” Technology Review, October 1990, pp. 33–40.
294 Representative Fascell statement: Gordon, “Bush Keeps Option to Make Poison Gas.”
294 Soviets knew they could not reject U.S. proposal: Author’s interview with Serguei Batsanov.
294 Negotiation of Bilateral Destruction Agreement (BDA): Don Oberdorfer, “U.S. Ready to Set Date to End Chemical Arms Production,” Washington Post, May 9, 1990; Michael R. Gordon, “In a Switch, Bush Offers to Stop Producing Chemical Weapons: Soviet Concessions Toward Deep Cuts Are Sought,” New York Times, May 9, 1990, pp. A1, A8.
295 Signing of BDA on June 1, 1990: “Documentation: Agreement Between the United States of America and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics on Destruction and Non-Production of Chemical Weapons and on Measures to Facilitate the Multilateral Convention on Banning Chemical Weapons,” Bulletin of Peace Proposals, vol. 21 (1990), pp. 363–369.
295 Key provisions of the BDA: Spiers, Chemical and Biological Weapons, p. 94.
295 Cheney told Army that binary production would end: John M. Broder, “Cheney Prepares to Halt All Chemical Weapons Output,” Los Angeles Times, July 12, 1990, p. A22.
295–97 Removal of U.S. chemical weapons from West Germany (Operation Steel Box): Mattias Plügge, “CW in the FRG—A Hazardous Withdrawal?,” International Defense Review, vol. 23, no. 2 (February 1990), pp. 123–124; Ian Murray, “Transport of US Gas Weapons Stirs German Alarm,” The Times (London), July 26, 1990, p. 7; Marc Fisher, “U.S. Starts Removing Nerve Gas,” International Herald Tribune, July 27, 1990, p. 1; Ian Murray, “Chemical Weapons Begin the Voyage to Oblivion,” The Times (London), July 27, 1990, p. 9; Tom Rhodes, “A Farewell to Arms,” The European, July 27–29, 1990, p. 1.
297 Completion of Operation Steel Box: John Deniston and Terri Ferguson, “Chemical Transport: Moving Chemical Munitions from Germany was a Complex Mission,” EurArmy, November 1990, p. 28; Major General John C. Heldstab, Deputy Chief of Staff, Operations, Headquarters, U.S. Army Europe, Memorandum for CINCEUR, Subject: “STEEL BOX European Phase After-Action Report,” December 9, 1990 [SPRU].
297 Storage of U.S. chemical weapons on Johnston Island: Owen Wilkes, “Chemical Weapon Burnoff in Central Pacific,” Peacelink, no. 83 (July 1990), p. 10.
297 Chemical weapons destruction technologies: U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Disposal of Chemical Weapons: Alternative Technologies—Back ground Paper, OTA-BP-O-95 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, June 1992), p. 3.
298 Saddam Hussein speech on April 1, 1990: Speech by Saddam Hussein on 1 April 1990, translated from Arabic in “President Warns Israel, Criticizes U.S.,” FBIS-NES-90-064, 3 April 1990, pp. 32–36.
298 Iraqi development of R-400 bomb and Al-Hussein warhead: UNMOVIC, “Unresolved Disarmament Issues,” pp. 146–147.
298 Flight tests of chemical warhead for Al-Hussein missile: Ibid., p. 147.
298 Thunderstrike project: Timothy V. McCarthy and Jonathan B. Tucker, “Saddam’s Toxic Arsenal: Chemical and Biological Weapons in the Gulf Wars,” in Lavoy, Sagan, and Wirtz, Planning the Unthinkable, pp. 65–67.
298–99 Saddam Hussein statement on April 12, 1990: Transcript of the meeting with a delegation of U.S. senators, FBIS-NES-90-076, April 17, 1990, p. 7.
299 Iraqi invasion of Kuwait, Bush response: Atkinson, Crusade, p. 4.
299 Soviet testing on Ustyurt Plateau: Judith Miller, “U.S. and Uzbeks Agree on Chemical Arm
s Plant Cleanup,” New York Times, May 25, 1999, p. A3.
299–300 Mirzayanov biography: Author’s interview with Vil S. Mirzayanov.
301 Cover-up of contamination at Volgograd: Ibid.
302 End of binary agent production at Pine Bluff: Institute for Defense and Disarmament Studies, “US Chemical Weapon Chronology 1991,” Arms Control Reporter, May 1992, p. 704.E-1.17.
302 Size of U.S. chemical weapons stockpile: Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Public Affairs, “U.S. Chemical Weapons Stockpile Information Declassified,” News Release no. 024-96, January 22, 1996.
302 U.S.-Soviet verification measures for BDA: Gordon, “In a Switch, Bush Offers to Stop Producing Chemical Weapons.”
302 Chapayevsk destruction facility never opened: Plügge, “CW in the FRG—A Hazardous Withdrawal?,” p. 123.
302–03 United Nations ultimatum to Iraq: U.S. News and World Report, Triumph Without Victory, pp. 181–182.
303 Muthanna churned out Sarin and Cyclosarin: UNMOVIC, “Unresolved Disarmament Issues,” p. 72.
303 General Kamel asked for thirty-one trailers to transport munitions: McCarthy and Tucker, “Saddam’s Toxic Arsenal,” p. 70.
303 Iraqi dispersal of chemical munitions: UNMOVIC, “Unresolved Disarmament Issues,” p. 148.
303 Special mobile missile unit under SSO control: McCarthy and Tucker, “Saddam’s Toxic Arsenal,” pp. 74–78.
304 CIA estimated Iraq had more than 1,000 tons of agents: Atkinson, Crusade, p. 86.
304 Reprogramming of CAMs to detect Cyclosarin: Author’s interview with Ron Manley.
304 U.S. troops given pyridostigmine bromide (PB): Beatrice Alexandra Golomb, A Review of the Scientific Literature as It Pertains to Gulf War Illnesses, vol. 2: Pyridostigmine Bromide (Santa Monica, Calif.: RAND National Defense Research Institute, 1999).
305 Porton Down organized emergency response teams: Author’s interview with Ron Manley.
305 Baker meeting with Tariq Aziz on January 9, 1991: Baker, The Politics of Diplomacy, p. 359.
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