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31. Paul Jacob Marperger, Abermahliger Versuch zur Abhandlung einer nützlichen Policey-Materia, nehmlich von denen Gassen Laternen, Strand- und Wacht-Feuern, und andern nächtlichen Illuminationibus oder Erleuchtungen der Gassen und Strassen (Dresden and Leipzig: “Verlegung des Authoris,” 1722), pp. 27–8.
32. Ibid., p. 28.
33. Carl Eduard Vehse, Geschichte des Östereichischen Hofs und Adels und der östereichischen Diplomatie (Hamburg: Hoffman und Campe, 1851), VII: 66–67, citing the Lettres historiques. See Spielman, City and the Crown, pp. 123–36 on anti-Jewish violence in Vienna.
34. Charles Somerset, The Travel Diary (1611–1612) of an English Catholic, Sir Charles Somerset. Edited from the Manuscript in the Brotherton Collection, University of Leeds, ed. Michael G. Brennan (Leeds Philosophical and Literary Society, 1993), p. 281.
35. John Evelyn, The Diary of John Evelyn. In Six Volumes, ed. E.S. de Beer (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1955), II: 472.
36. Andrew Balfour, Letters write [sic] to a friend by the learned and judicious Sir Andrew Balfour … containing excellent directions and advices for travelling thro’ France and Italy (Edinburgh: s.n., 1700), p. 230.
37. Petr Andreevich Tolstoi, The Travel Diary of Peter Tolstoi: A Muscovite in Early Modern Europe, trans. Max J. Okenfuss (DeKalb, IL: Northern Illinois University Press, 1987), p. 102. Padua’s reputation extended into the early eighteenth century, when another English visitor noted that “The City is … well Fortified, but thinly Inhabited; which is occasion’d by the frequent Tumults and Quarrels of the Scholars, who usually walk the Streets arm’d in the Night-time, and even seek Occasions of doing Mischief.” Ellis Veryard, An account of divers choice remarks … taken in a journey through the Low-Countries, France, Italy, and part of Spain (London: S. Smith and B. Walford, 1701), p. 124.
38. Carl Heiler, “Der Herborner Student 1584–1817,” Nassauischen Annalen 55 (1935): 79–85.
39. Herbert Schwarzwälder, Sitten und Unsitten, Bräuche und Missbräuche im alten Bremen in den Proklamen eines hochedlen, hochweisen Rathes dieser Stadt (Bremen: Schünemann, 1984), p. 69.
40. Sophie Cassagnes-Brouquet, “La violence des étudiants à Toulouse à la fin du XVe et au XVIe siècle (1460–1610),” Annales du Midi 94 (1982): 243–62, and Beinert, “Moscherosch,” p. 144.
41. As cited in John Lough, France Observed in the Seventeenth Century by British Travelers (Stocksfield, UK: Oriel Press, 1985), pp. 103–04.
42. Neil Brough and R.J. Kavanagh, “Kreuzgang’s Precursors: Some Notes on the Nachtwachen des Bonaventura,” German Life and Letters 39, 3 (1986): 173–92, here 185.
43. Alois Niederstätter, “Notizen zu einer Rechts- und Kulturgeschichte der Nacht,” in Das Recht im Kulturgeschichtlichen Wandel: Festschrift für Karl Heinz Burmeister zur Emeritierung, ed. Bernd Marquardt and Alois Niederstätter (Konstanz: UVK, 2002), pp. 173–90; here p. 182; Uta Tschernuth, “Studentisches Leben in den Bursen,” in Das alte Universitätsviertel in Wien 1385–1985, ed. Günther Hamann, Kurt Mühlberger, and Franz Skacel, Schriftenreihe des Universitätsarchivs 2 (Vienna: Universitätsverlag für Wissenschaft und Forschung, 1985), pp. 153–62.
44. John Milton, Paradise Lost, ed. David Scott Kastan and Merritt Yerkes Hughes (Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Publishing, 2005), p. 24; I.500–02
45. Sälter, Polizei und soziale Ordnung, p. 192.
46. Ibid., pp. 193–95.
47. Marc-René de Voyer d’Argenson, Notes de René d’Argenson, intéressantes pour l’histoire des moeurs et de la police de Paris: à la fin du règne de Louis XIV (Paris: Imprimerie Émile Voitelain et cie, 1866), p. 36.
48. In the transition from Fremdzwang to Selbstzwang proposed by Elias in The Civilizing Process, this pressure on fathers to control sons could be seen as a key intermediate step. See further evidence in Sälter, Polizei und soziale Ordnung, pp. 410ff.
49. See Robert Shoemaker, “Male Honour and the Decline of Public Violence in Eighteenth-Century London,” Social History 26, 2 (2001): 190–208, and Gustav Gugitz, “Mord und Totschlag in Alt-Wien. Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der öffentlichen Sicherheit und Kriminalität in Wien im 17. und 18. Jahrhundert,” Jahrbuch des Vereins für Geschichte der Stadt Wien 14 (1958): 141–55.
50. Gerd Schwerhoff, Köln im Kreuzverhör: Kriminalität, Herrschaft und Gesellschaft in einer frühneuzeitlichen Stadt (Bonn and Berlin: Bouvier, 1991), pp. 300–01.
51. Claude Fouret, “Douai au XVIe siècle: une sociabilité de l’agression,” Revue d’histoire moderne et contemporaine 34 (1987): 3–29; Joachim Eibach, Frankfurter Verhöre: städtische Lebenswelten und Kriminalität im 18. Jahrhundert (Paderborn: Schöningh, 2003), pp. 222–24, and the studies cited there.
52. Sébastien Cabantous, “Crimes et délits nocturnes en pays tarnais au siècle des lumières,” Revue du Tarn, third series, 181 (2001): 107–31, and Julius R. Ruff, Crime, Justice, and Public Order in Old Regime France: The Sénéchaussées of Libourne and Bazas, 1696–1789 (London: Croom Helm, 1984), pp. 83–85.
53. Gugitz, “Mord und Totschlag in Alt-Wien”; cf. the Totenbeschauprotokolle (coroners’ reports) in the Wiener Stadt- und Landesarchiv.
54. The Proceedings on the King’s Commissions of the Peace, Oyer and Terminer, and Gaol Delivery for the City of London; and also Gaol Delivery for the County of Middlesex, held at Justice-Hall in the Old Bailey [hereafter OBSP], January 14, 1687: “J. W— and J. P— were Indicted for Killing one Peter Penrose Bell-man in the Parish of St. Giles’s in the Fields, on the 30th. day of November last.” On attitudes toward nightwatchmen, see Brough and Kavanagh, “Kreuzgang’s Precursors.”
55. Sälter, Polizei und soziale Ordnung, pp. 193–95, citing cases from 1696 and 1697.
56. See Catherine Denys, “The Development of Police Forces in Urban Europe in the Eighteenth Century,” Journal of Urban History 36, 3 (2010): 332–44, and Catherine Denys, Brigitte Marin, and Vincent Milliot, eds., Réformer la police. Les mémoires policiers en Europe au XVIIIe siècle (Presses universitaires de Rennes, 2009). On the end of the night watch see Joachim Schlör, Nights in the Big City: Paris, Berlin, London 1840–1930, trans. Pierre Gottfried Imhoff and Dafydd Rees Roberts (London: Reaktion Books, 1998), pp. 73–86.
57. d’Argenson, Notes, pp. 63–64.
58. Sälter, Polizei und soziale Ordnung, pp. 183–84.
59. Beattie, Policing and Punishment, pp. 167–97.
60. Anne Emily Garnier Newdigate-Newdegate, Cavalier and Puritan in the Days of the Stuarts; Compiled from the Private Papers and Diary of Sir Richard Newdigate, Second Baronet, with Extracts from Ms. News-Letters Addressed to Him between 1675 and 1689 (New York: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1901), pp. 234–38.
61. Evelyn, Diary, ed. de Beer, vol. V, Kalendarium, 1690–1706, p. 363.
62. Jürgen Habermas, Strukturwandel der Öffentlichkeit. Untersuchungen zu einer Kategorie der bürgerlichen Gesellschaft. Mit einem Vorwort zur Neuauflage 1990 (Frankfurt: Suhrkamp, 1990), p. 18.
63. See Karin Sennefelt, “Citizenship and the Political Landscape of Libelling in Stockholm, c. 1720–70,” Social History 33, 2 (2008): 145–63, and the literature cited there. See also the essays by Hohendahl, Baker, Zaret, and Eley in Craig Calhoun, ed., Habermas and the Public Sphere (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1992), and Kurt Imhof, “‘Öffentlichkeit’ als historische Kategorie und als Kategorie der Historie,” Schweizerische Zeitschrift für Geschichte 46, 1 (1996): 3–25.
64. Habermas, Strukturwandel, pp. 58–69; Jürgen Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society, trans. Thomas Burger with Frederick Lawrence (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1989), pp. 5–14.
65. See the “Vorwort zur Neuauflage 1990” in Habermas, Strukturwandel der Öffentlichkeit, pp. 11–50; see Peter Uwe Hohendahl, “The Theory of the Public Sphere Revisited,” in Sites of Discourse – Public and Private Spheres – Legal Culture, ed. Uwe Böker and Julie A. Hibbard (Amsterdam and New York: Rodopi, 2002), pp. 13–33, and Geoff Eley, “Politics, Cu
lture, and the Public Sphere,” Positions 10, 1 (2002): 219–36.
66. For example, the essays in Peter Lake and Steven C. A. Pincus, eds., The Politics of the Public Sphere in Early Modern England (Manchester University Press, 2007).
67. Structural Transformation, p. 34; Strukturwandel, p. 95: “Privatleuten, die produktive Arbeit tun.”
68. Brian William Cowan, The Social Life of Coffee: The Emergence of the British Coffeehouse (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2005).
69. See the valuable study by Beat Kümin, Drinking Matters: Public Houses and Social Exchange in Early Modern Central Europe (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007), pp. 185–88, arguing that alehouses and taverns, rather than coffeehouses or salons, were the leading sites of social and cultural exchange in the last century of the Old Regime.
70. Johann Baptist Suttinger, Consuetudines Austriacae ad stylum excelsi regiminis infra anasum olim accommodatae (Nuremberg: Martin Endter, 1718), p. 23. The Réflexions morales, satiriques et comiques, sur les moeurs de notre siècle of Jean Frédéric Bernard (Amsterdam: chez Jean Frederic Bernard, 1713) describes the coffeehouses of the Dutch Republic as filled with “a spirit of sedition and discord … an anarchy of libertine discourse,” as quoted in Lynn Hunt, Margaret C. Jacob, and Wijnand Mijnhardt, The Book That Changed Europe: Picart and Bernard’s Religious Ceremonies of the World (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2010), p. 37.
71. Steve Pincus, “‘Coffee Politicians Does Create’: Coffeehouses and Restoration Political Culture,” Journal of Modern History 67 (1995): 807–34.
72. Markman Ellis, The Coffee House: A Cultural History (London: Phoenix, 2004), p. 47.
73. Ibid., pp. 49–50. Of course, the gatherings essential to a public sphere did not take place only at night.
74. M.P., Character of Coffee and Coffee-Houses (London: John Starkey, 1661). See below, chapter 8, on the implications of coffeehouse sociability at night for the early Enlightenment.
75. Alfred Franklin, Le café, le thé et le chocolat, La vie privée d’autrefois 13 (Paris: Éditions Plon, Nourrit et cie, 1893), pp. 73–74.
76. Ibid., p. 73.
77. Ibid., p. 74.
78. Ibid., p. 76.
79. Peter Albrecht, “Coffee-Drinking As a Symbol of Social Change in Continental Europe in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries,” Studies in Eighteenth-Century Culture 18 (1989): 91–103, and “Kaffee und Kaffeehäuser in der Universitätsstadt Helmstedt vom Ende des 17. bis zum Anfang des 19. Jahrhunderts,” Braunschweigisches Jahrbuch 72 (1991): 95–118.
80. Mary Jepp Clarke, “Letter from Mary Jepp Clarke to Ursula Clarke Venner, March 01, 1691,” in Clarke Family Letters (Alexandria, VA: Alexander Street Press, 2002), record numer S7378-D180.
81. Nemeitz, Séjour de Paris, ed. Franklin, p. 52. On news-men or “nouvellistes” in French cafés see François Fosca, Histoire des cafés de Paris ([Paris]: Firmin-Didot et cie, 1934), p. 20.
82. Julius Bernhard von Rohr, Einleitung zur Ceremoniel-Wissenschaft der Privat Personen, ed. with a commentary by Gotthart Frühsorge (Berlin, 1728; repr. Leipzig: Edition Leipzig, 1990), pp. 467–68.
83. Chevalier de Mailly, Les entretiens des cafés de Paris et les diferens qui y surviennent (Trévoux: Chez Etienne Ganeau, 1702).
84. Abraham a Sancta Clara, Etwas für alle, das ist: Eine kurtze beschreibung allerley stands- ambts- und gewerbs-persohnen: mit beygeruckter sittlichen lehre und biblischen concepten (Würzburg: druckts Martin Frantz Hertz, 1711), p. 152. See Pieter van Eeghen and Johan Philip van der Kellen, Het werk van Jan en Casper Luyken (Amsterdam: F. Muller & Co., 1905), II: 407–13.
85. John Tatham, Knavery in all trades, or, The coffee-house a comedy: as it was acted in the Christmas holidays by several apprentices with great applause (London: Printed by J.B. for W. Gilbertson and H. Marsh, 1664), fo. D3r.
86. Franklin, Le café, pp. 65–69.
87. Willem van der Hoeven, ’t Koffyhuis: kluchtspel (Amsterdam: de erfg. van J. Lescailje, 1712). See Pim Reinders and Thera Wijsenbeek-Olthuis, Koffie in Nederland: vier eeuwen cultuurgeschiedenis (Zutphen: Walburg Pers, 1994), p. 49.
88. A proclamation for the suppression of coffee-houses (London: Printed by the assigns of John Bill, and Christopher Barker, 1675); see Calendar of State Papers, Domestic Series, of the Reign of Charles II, 1660–1685 (London: HMSO, 1860–1939), XVII: 465, 503. A report of December 12, 1674 does refer to “much talk abroad” which “seems the nocturnal exercises at the coffee houses.” Calendar of State Papers, Domestic Series, of the Reign of Charles II, XVI: 459.
89. Jean-Baptiste Antoine Colbert, marquis de Seignelay, writing on December 27, 1685, as cited in Jean Leclant, “Coffee and Cafés in Paris, 1644–1693,” in Food and Drink in History, Selections from the Annales, Économies, Sociétes, Civilisations 5, ed. Robert Forster and Orest A. Ranum (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987), p. 91.
90. Gustav Gugitz, Das Wiener Kaffeehaus; ein Stück Kultur- und Lokalgeschichte (Vienna: Deutscher Verlag für Jugend und Volk, 1940), p. 31.
91. Casimir Freschot (1640?–1720), Mémoires de la cour de Vienne, ou Remarques faites par un voyageur curieux sur l’état present de cette cour (Cologne: Chez Guillaume Etienne [actually The Hague], 1705), pp. 31–32.
92. Stadtarchiv Leipzig [hereafter SdAL], Tit. I, Nr. 37, “Thee- und Caffe- Stuben,” May 18, 1697.
93. SdAL, Tit. I, Nr. 37, and Tit. LX B 3b, “in denen sogenandten Caffee-Häusern,” August 19, 1704. Closing hours were set at 9 p.m. in winter and 10 p.m. in the summer.
94. Stadtarchiv Frankfurt, Bmb 1703, fos. 93v–94v.
95. Stadtarchiv Frankfurt, Bmb 1703, fo. 142r: “ihre caffèschilde sovort einziehen und sich furters gaste auff den caffè, und anders getrancke zu setzen, bey hoher straffe enthalt(en) sollen.”
96. Stadtarchiv Frankfurt, Rechneiamt Bücher Nr. 7, fo. 69v (old fo. 67v): “Abschaffung der The und Caffee Häußer.”
97. See Gottlieb Schnapper-Arndt, Studien zur Geschichte der Lebenshaltung in Frankfurt a. M. während des 17. und 18. Jahrhunderts, ed. Karl Bräuer, Veröffentlichungen der Historischen Kommission der Stadt Frankfurt a.M. 2: 1–2 (Frankfurt: Baer, 1915), I: 352.
98. The coffeehouses of Cologne were likewise closed by an edict of August 23, 1706: see the reference to “Abschaffung der Coffehäuser” in Karl Härter and Michael Stolleis, eds., Repertorium der Policeyordnungen der Frühen Neuzeit, vol. VI, Reichsstädte 2 Köln, ed. Klaus Militzer, Studien zur europäischen Rechtsgeschichte 191 (Frankfurt: Klostermann, 2005), p. 1061.
99. Alexander Dietz, Frankfurter Handelsgeschichte (Frankfurt: Hermann Minjon, 1910–25), IV: 206–07.
100. Spectator 9 (March 10, 1711), as quoted in Valérie Capdeville, “Les clubs londoniens: vie nocturne et transgression,” in La nuit dans l’Angleterre des lumières, ed. Suzy Halimi (Paris: Presses Sorbonne nouvelle, 2008), pp. 21–34. The majority of these clubs met in private rooms in taverns or pubs, rather than in coffeehouses. See Kümin, Drinking Matters, pp. 187–88.
101. Cowan, Social Life of Coffee, p. 250.
102. In Europe’s very largest cities, retail trade helped light up the night. Schivelbusch (Disenchanted Night, pp. 144–46) cites Defoe’s Complete Tradesman (1728) on London shopkeepers’ use of lavish lighting to attract customers. The account of Paris by Nemeitz notes that “Many shops and most of the cafés, cookshops, and public houses are open until 10 or 11 o’clock, and the windows of these establishments are adorned with an infinity of lights, which shed a great light in the streets.” Nemeitz, Séjour de Paris, ed. Franklin, p. 57.
103. “Bürgerliche Öffentlichkeit läßt sich vorerst als die Sphäre der zum Publikum versammelten Privatleuten begreifen; diese beanspruchen die obrigkeitlich reglementierte Öffentlichkeit alsbald gegen die öffentliche Gewalt selbst,” Habermas, Strukturwandel, p. 86.
104. As initiated by Joan Landes, Women and the Public Sphere in the Age of the French Revolution (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1988).
105. Bertuch, “Moden in Gebrauche und Eintheilung des Tages und der Nacht,” pp. 199–201.