The Ghosts of Cannae: Hannibal and the Darkest Hour of the Roman Republic
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75. Hoyos, “Hannibal: What Kind of Genius,” Greece and Rome, pp. 176–7.
76. Daly, Cannae, p. 46; Lancel, Hannibal, pp. 109–10.
77. Bernard Montgomery, A History of Warfare (London: World Publishing Co., 1968), p. 98.
78. The story is contained in Livy (22.53). Some modern authorities question its veracity. R. J. Ridley (“Was Scipio Africanus at Cannae?” pp. 162–3) calls it a “romantic story” and cites Scullard, Scipio’s biographer, as casting doubt, since Polybius didn’t mention it. Yet Scullard himself (Scipio Africanus, p. 30) points out that this section of Polybius is not completely preserved, and that Canusium later struck a coin almost certainly depicting Scipio, apparently as a tribute to the incident.
79. Livy, 22.57.2–6; Appian, Han, 27; Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p. 220.
80. Lazenby, Hannibal’s War, p. 91.
81. Livy, 22.61.14–15.
82. Ibid., 22.57.9–11.
83. Ibid., 22.58.1–4.
84. Ibid., 22.60.
85. Appian, Han. 28.
86. Livy, 23.16.15.
87. Livy, 23.24.6–13; Polybius, 3.118.
88. Livy, 23.31.1–3.
89. This interpretation is most clearly evident in Silius Italicus, 10.649–658.
CHAPTER VII: AFTERSHOCKS
1. Lazenby, Hannibal’s War, p. 89.
2. Lancel, Hannibal, p. 113.
3. Livy, 23.7.1–2; Lazenby, Hannibal’s War, p. 90.
4. Livy, 23.10.1–2.
5. Lancel, Hannibal, p. 115; Livy, 23.18.10–15.
6. Livy, 23.45.4.
7. Lazenby, Hannibal’s War, p. 92; Lancel, Hannibal, p. 115.
8. Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p. 223.
9. Livy, 23.11.7–12.
10. Ibid., 23.13.2.
11. Livy, 23.41.10–12; Lancel, Hannibal, p. 112; Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p. 226.
12. Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, pp. 220–1.
13. Lazenby, Hannibal’s War, pp. 94–5; Prevas, Hannibal Crosses the Alps, p. 212.
14. Lancel, Hannibal, p. 115; Cornell, “Hannibal’s Legacy: The Effects of the Hannibalic War on Italy,” p. 102.
15. Plutarch, Fabius Maximus, 20.
16. Delbrück, Warfare in Antiquity, p. 340
17. Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p. 358. The highest figures are Lancel’s (Hannibal, p. 145).
18. Lancel, Hannibal, p. 122.
19. Scullard, Scipio Africanus, p. 226.
20. Livy, 23.33.5 and 23.34.4–5.
21. Polybius, 7.9.
22. Lancel, Hannibal, pp. 117–8. See also E. J. Bickerman, “An Oath of Hannibal,” Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association, vol. 75 (1944), pp. 87–102; E. J. Bickerman, “Hannibal’s Covenant,” American Journal of Philology, vol. 73 (1952), pp. 1–23.
23. Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p. 253.
24. Livy, 26.24.
25. Information about the raid comes from Polybius 11.7; information about Mantinea comes from Polybius 11.11–18.
26. Livy, 29.12.2.
27. Livy, 23.32.7–12, 23.34.10–15, 23.40–41.7; Lancel, Hannibal, p. 120.
28. Lazenby, Hannibal’s War, p. 98.
29. Livy, 24.6.4; Polybius, 7.2.1–6.
30. Livy, 24.29–30. The killing of the two thousand Roman deserters is discussed in Livy, 24.30.6–7.
31. Lazenby, Hannibal’s War, p. 35.
32. See Plutarch, Marcellus, 13.
33. Livy (25.6) devotes an entire chapter to a moving recitation of their grievances. The senate’s reply is at Livy 25.7.2–4.
34. Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p. 263.
35. Polybius, 8.3–7.
36. Ibid., 8.5.6.
37. Plutarch, Marcellus, 17.
38. Lazenby, Hannibal’s War, p. 107.
39. Livy, 24.36.
40. Polybius, 8.37.1–13; Plutarch, Marcellus, 18.
41. Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p. 265.
42. Lazenby, Hannibal’s War, p. 118.
43. Plutarch, Marcellus, 19. Actually, Plutarch gives three versions of the story, all with the same result.
44. Ibid., 21; Livy, 25.40.1–3.
45. Livy, 26.1.10.
46. Lazenby, Hannibal’s War, p. 119.
47. Livy, 26.21.14.
48. Livy, 26.29–30.
49. Lazenby, Hannibal’s War, p. 172.
50. Ibid., p. 50; Daly, Cannae, p. 11; Polybius, 3.97.1–5.
51. Scullard, Scipio Africanus
52. Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, pp. 246–7.
53. Polybius, 3.76.8–11.
54. Ibid., 3.96.
55. Livy, 22.20–21.
56. Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p. 249.
57. Scullard, Scipio Africanus, pp. 32–3.
58. Livy implies that it was late in 216, but this seems unlikely given the onset of bad weather in the Alps.
59. Lazenby, Hannibal’s War, p. 128. Goldsworthy (The Punic Wars, p. 250) argues against this comparison, maintaining that there is no sign that Hasdrubal deliberately thinned the Spanish center. But Livy (23.29.8) makes it clear that the Spanish troops were irresolute, something Hasdrubal probably understood and was clever enough to exploit, especially in light of his brother’s success at Cannae.
60. Lazenby, Hannibal’s War, p. 129.
61. Livy, 25.32.3; Rawlings, “Celts, Spaniards, and Samnites: Warriors in a Soldier’s War,” pp. 91–2.
62. Hoyos, “Hannibal: What Kind of Genius,” pp. 174–5.
63. Livy, 25.33.
64. Ibid., 25.34.
65. Ibid., 25.35–6.
66. Lazenby, Hannibal’s War, p. 131; Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p. 253.
67. Livy (26.17.1) gives the figure as six thousand Roman infantry and three hundred cavalry, plus an equal number of allied foot soldiers and eight hundred cavalry. Appian (History of Spain, 17) reports ten thousand foot soldiers and a thousand horse.
68. Livy, 26.17.3–16.
69. Ibid., 23.43.4.
70. Ibid., 25.13–14; Lazenby, Hannibal’s War, pp. 112–3.
71. Livy, 25.16–17, 25.20.4; Lazenby, Hannibal’s War, p. 113.
72. Livy, 25.19.9–17.
73. Ibid., 25.21.
74. Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p. 237.
75. Livy, 26.1.9–10.
76. Lazenby, Hannibal’s War, p. 174; Livy, 27.7.12–13.
77. Lazenby, Hannibal’s War, p. 121.
78. Livy, 26.4.4–10.
79. Ibid., 26.5–6.
80. For the alternative versions, see Polybius 9.3–7 and Livy 26.7–11.
81. Livy, 26.11.6.
82. Ibid., 26.11.4.
CHAPTER VIII: THE AVENGERS
1. Lancel, Hannibal, p. 138.
2. See for example Lazenby, Hannibal’s War, p. 133, and H. H. Scullard, Roman Politics, 220–150 B.C. (Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press, 1973), pp. 66–7.
3. Livy, 26.19.3–9.
4. Polybius, 10.2–3.
5. Livy, 26.19.10.
6. Scullard, Scipio Africanus, p. 40; Lazenby, Hannibal’s War, p. 133.
7. Polybius, 10.9.3.
8. Ibid., 10.7.5. Mago’s location “on this side of the Pillars of Hercules,” according to Polybius, is confusing and may have been a copyist’s error.
9. Polybius, 10.8.4–9.
10. Ibid., 10.11.5–8.
11. Ibid., 10.14–15, 1–2.
12. Polybius’s description of the sack of New Carthage is frequently used as a typical example of Roman behavior in such circumstances, a sequential process beginning with indiscriminate slaughter. Polybius, 10.15.5–8, says “They do this I think to inspire terror, so that when towns are taken by the Romans one may often see not only the corpses of human beings, but dogs cut in half and the dismembered limbs of other animals…. After this, upon the signal being given, the massacre ceased and they began pillaging.” Polybius then goes on to describe a very methodical and orderly process by which loot was accumulated and distributed equally to the legion
aries. (10.15.4–16). Adam Ziolkowski “Urbs Direpta, Or How the Romans Sacked Cities,” in John Rich and Graham Shipley, eds., War and Society in the Roman World (London: Routledge, 1995), pp. 69–91, argues that the process was likely to have been a lot less orderly, with soldiers grabbing any goods they could get, and raping those citizens they didn’t kill.
13. Polybius, 10.17.6–14.
14. Livy, 26.51.1–2.
15. Polybius, 10.19.1–6; Livy, 26.50.
16. Polybius, 10.20.1–4.
17. Lazenby, Hannibal’s War, p. 140.
18. Livy, 26.51.10; Polybius 10.35.6–8.
19. Polybius, 10.37.4–5.
20. Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p. 277; Lazenby, Hannibal’s War, p. 141.
21. Scullard, Scipio Africanus, pp. 73–4.
22. Ibid., p. 74.
23. Livy, 27.19.1–3.
24. Ibid., 27.19.8–12.
25. Lazenby, Hannibal’s War, p. 142.
26. Plutarch, Marcellus, 9.
27. Livy, 27.9.1.
28. Ibid., 27.10.10.
29. Ibid., 27.12.1–3.
30. Ibid., 27.12–14.
31. Ibid., 27.16.12–16.
32. Lancel, Hannibal, p. 143; Livy, 27.16.8.
33. Plutarch, Marcellus, 27; Scullard, Roman Politics, pp. 20–1; Lazenby, Hannibal’s War, pp. 176–7.
34. It is probably telling that, despite Fabius Maximus’s success at Tarentum, for the year 208 his imperium was not renewed.
35. See Livy, 27.26–7, and Polybius, 10.32.1–6.
36. Polybius, 10.32.7.
37. Lazenby, Hannibal’s War, p. 179.
38. Ibid., p. 178; Livy, 27.24.
39. Livy, 27.36.1–4, 27.39.1–2, 27.39.5–11.
40. Silius Italicus, 15.513–21.
41. Lazenby, Hannibal’s War, p. 180.
42. Livy, 27.34–35.
43. Ibid., 27.39.11–14; Lancel, Hannibal, p. 146; Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p. 239.
44. Livy, 27.46.6; Lazenby, Hannibal’s War, p. 184.
45. Lazenby, Hannibal’s War, p. 183.
46. Livy, 27.43.1–12.
47. Dodge, Hannibal, pp. 547–8.
48. Livy, 27.44.9.
49. Polybius, 11.1.1.
50. Livy, 27.46.1–4.
51. Ibid., 27.46.7ff.
52. Ibid., 27.47.1–5.
53. Ibid., 27.47.10–11; Dodge, Hannibal, p. 551.
54. Ovid, Fasti, 6.770.
55. Scullard, A History of the Roman World, note 6, p. 502; Walbank, A Historical Commentary on Polybius, vol. 2, p. 270.
56. Livy, 27.48.8.
57. Lazenby’s explanation (Hannibal’s War, pp. 188–90) of the course of the battle is lucid and logical.
58. Polybius, 11.3.1.
59. Ibid., 11.2.1; Livy, 27.49.3–4.
60. Livy, 27.50.1; Lazenby, “Was Maharbal Right?” p. 40.
61. Livy, 27.49.5–6.
62. Lazenby, Hannibal’s War, p. 191.
63. Polybius, 11.3.6.
64. Livy, 27.51.12.
65. Ibid., 28.1.4.
66. Ibid., 28.2.12.
67. Polybius, 11.20.2. Livy (28.12.13–14) places the Carthaginian numbers at fifty thousand infantry and forty-five hundred cavalry. Lazenby (Hannibal’s War, p. 145) argues convincingly that Scipio’s tactic of extending his wings indicates that he was outnumbered considerably in infantry.
68. Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p. 279.
69. Polybius, 11.21.1–5.
70. Ibid., 11.22.1–5.
71. Lazenby, Hannibal’s War, p. 146.
72. Livy, 28.14.12–14, 28.15.3.
73. Polybius, 11.22.11–23.2.
74. Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p. 282.
75. Scullard, Scipio Africanus, pp. 94–5; Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, pp. 282–3; Lazenby, Hannibal’s War, p. 150.
76. Polybius, 11.24.1.
77. Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p. 283.
78. Livy, 28.15.11; Polybius, 11.24.7–9.
79. Livy, 28.16.6.
80. Ibid., 28.16.15.
81. Lancel, Carthage, pp. 396–7.
82. Livy, 24.49.1–6; Lazenby, Hannibal’s War, p. 151.
83. Livy, 28.17.13–16. An analogous situation occurred in A.D. 1914 during the early stages of World War I when German admiral von Spee’s squadron, featuring the two cruisers Scharnhorst and Gneisenau, sailed up to the Falkland Islands. There the Germans found anchored in Port Stanley harbor a much more powerful British fleet with two capital ships, the new dreadnought battle cruisers Inflexible and Invincible. Like in Scipio’s case, von Spee’s best bet was to close—in this case to fight before his adversaries could raise a head of steam and while they were still sitting ducks. Instead, the German tried to flee and was run down and annihilated.
84. Lazenby, Hannibal’s War, p. 152.
85. Livy, 28.22.2ff.
86. Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p. 284.
87. Lazenby, Hannibal’s War, p. 153.
88. Livy, 28.25–29; Polybius, 11.25.30.
89. Livy, 28.36.1–2.
90. Ibid., 28.37.4
91. Ibid., 28.38.5.
92. Ibid., 28.40.3–42.22.
93. Lancel, Hannibal, p. 162.
94. Livy, 28.44.1–2.
95. Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p. 286.
96. Livy, 28.45.8.
97. G. de Sanctis, Storia dei Romani (Florence, Italy: La Nuova Italia, 1968), vol. 3, 2, p. 645ff; M. Gelzer, Kleine Schriften (Wiesbaden, Germany: F. Steiner, 1964), vol. 3, p. 245ff; cited in Lazenby, Hannibal’s War, p. 195; Livy, 25.45.13; Appian, Lib 7.
CHAPTER IX: RESURRECTING THE GHOSTS
1. Livy, 28.46.7–10; 28.46.13.
2. Scullard (Scipio Africanus, fn 81, p. 266) argues that the story should probably be rejected since an almost identical story is told by Plutarch about Agesilaus (9). Nevertheless, it remains true that Livy (59 B.C.–A.D. 17) predated Plutarch (A.D. 46–120), so unless the story is based on an earlier tradition, it seems possible to accept it.
3. Livy, 29.1.15.
4. Ibid., 29.24.12.
5. Ibid., 29.24.14; Lazenby (Hannibal’s War, p. 203) argues that the number is too large, since it was not until the Third Macedonian War, thirty years later, that the Roman army had legions this big. Goldsworthy (The Punic Wars, p. 287) counters that this argument “denies the essential flexibility of the Roman military system,” and Goldsworthy says that “it was normal to increase the size of legions when faced by an especially dangerous enemy.” Certainly, this was the case at Cannae.
6. Lazenby, Hannibal’s War, p. 202.
7. Livy, 29.1.13–14, 26.1.10.
8. Ibid., 29.24.12.
9. Scullard, Scipio Africanus, p. 111.
10. Livy, 29.9.4–7.
11. Ibid., 29.9.9–11.
12. Plutarch, Cato the Elder, 3.5–6.
13. Livy, 29.19ff.
14. Ibid., 29.22ff.
15. Livy does not state a date, but Lazenby (Hannibal’s War, p. 204) thinks the June-July time frame is a good guess.
16. Livy, 29.25.12.
17. Ibid., 29.28.
18. Appian, Lib 9; Lancel, Hannibal, p. 165.
19. Livy, 29.34.1–6.
20. Ibid., 29.34.7ff.
21. Lancel, Hannibal, p. 164.
22. Livy, 29.28.7.
23. Ibid., 29.35.10–11; Polybius, 14.1.14; Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p. 292; Lazenby, Hannibal’s War, p. 206.
24. Polybius, 14.1.3.
25. Livy, 30.3.1–7.
26. Ibid., 30.4.9.
27. Polybius, 14.4.10.
28. Livy, 30.6.8; Lazenby, Hannibal’s War, p. 208.
29. Polybius, 14.5.15.
30. Livy, 30.7.6–9.
31. Ibid., 30.7.8–9; Polybius, 14.7.6.
32. Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p. 295.
33. Polybius, 14.7.9; Lazenby, Hannibal’s War, p. 209; Lancel, Hannibal, p. 203.
34. Lazenby, Hannibal’s War, p. 209.
35. Scullard,
Scipio Africanus, p. 129.
36. Polybius, 14.8.8; Livy, 30.8.7.
37. Lazenby, Hannibal’s War, pp. 209–211.
38. Livy, 30.8.7.
39. Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, pp. 295–6.
40. Livy, 30.8.12–13.
41. Polybius, 14.10.7–9.
42. Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p. 297.
43. Polybius, 14.10.9.
44. Livy, 30.10.12.
45. Ibid., 30.11.5.
46. Lazenby, Hannibal’s War, p. 212.
47. Livy, 30.12.11ff.
48. Diodorus (27.7) claims that before Hasdrubal Gisgo’s condominium with Syphax, Sophonisba had been the wife of Masinissa. But this seems unlikely, given the prince’s extensive time in Spain. According to Zonaras (9.11), Sophonisba was betrothed to Masinissa before marrying Syphax.
49. Livy, 30.13.12–14.
50. Ibid., 30.15.1–8.
51. Lazenby, Hannibal’s War, p. 213; Scullard, Scipio Africanus, p. 134.
52. Livy, 30.16.4.
53. Lancel, Hannibal, p. 170.
54. Livy, 30.16.10–11.
55. Ibid., 30.16.12.
56. Appian, The Punic Wars, 32.
57. Livy, 30.16.14–15.
58. Lancel, Hannibal, p. 155.
59. Lazenby, Hannibal’s War, p. 214.
60. Livy, 30.19.1ff.
61. Cicero (On Divination, 1.24.48) says the story came from Silenos, Hannibal’s resident historian.
62. Delbrück (Warfare in Antiquity, p. 380) in particular draws attention to this time lag.
63. Hoyos, “Hannibal: What Kind of Genius,” p. 179.
64. Lancel, Hannibal, pp. 156–7.
65. Appian, The Punic Wars, 134.
66. Livy, 30.20.7–8.
67. Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, pp. 299.
68. Appian, The Punic Wars, 34.
69. Livy, 30.25.1ff; Polybius, 15.2.3–13.
70. Lancel, Hannibal, p. 171.
71. Polybius, 15.4.2.
72. Polybius, 14.5.1–2.
73. Lazenby, Hannibal’s War, p. 218.
74. Appian, The Hannibalic War, 59.
75. Polybius, 15.3.5–7; Scullard, Scipio Africanus, p. 141.
76. Polybius, 15.5.4–7; Livy 30.29.2–3. Some doubt the story, since an almost identical tale exists in Herodotus (7.146.7), but it makes good tactical sense and Scipio was plainly capable of all manner of deception. He also knew Greek and may have actually gotten the idea from The Histories.
77. Polybius, 14.6.4–8; Livy, 30.30–31.
78. Polybius does not specify the size of the opposing armies. Appian (The Punic Wars, 40), who is generally good with numbers, gives Hannibal 50,000 total, while Lazenby (Hannibal’s War, pp. 220–1) estimates his infantry at thirty-six thousand.