2. Steele, Michael, Wendy Ermold, and Jinlun Zhang (2008). “Arctic Ocean Surface Warming Trends over the Past 100 Years.” Geophysical Research Letters 35: L02614.
3. Kay, Jennifer E., Tristan L’Ecuyer, Andrew Gettelman, Graeme Stephens, and Chris O’Dell (2008). “The Contribution of Cloud and Radiation Anomalies to the 2007 Arctic Sea Ice Extent Minimum.” Geophysical Research Letters 35: L08503; Ogi, Masayo, Ignatius G. Rigor, Miles G. McPhee, and John M. Wallace (2008). “Summer Retreat of Arctic Sea Ice: Role of Summer Winds.” Geophysical Research Letters 35: L24701.
4. Kwok, Ron (2008). “Summer Sea Ice Motion from the 18GHz Channel of AMSR-E and the Exchange of Sea Ice between the Pacific and Atlantic Sectors.” Geophysical Research Letters 35: L03504.
5. Lindsay, R. W., J. Zhang, A. Schweiger, M. Steele, and H. Stern (2009). “Arctic Sea Ice Retreat in 2007 Follows Thinning Trend.” Journal of Climate 21: 364.
6. Deser, Clara, and Haiyan Teng (2008). “Evolution of Arctic Sea Ice Concentration Trends and the Role of Atmospheric Circulation Forcing, 1979–2007.” Geophysical Research Letters 35: L02504; Zhang, Jinlun, Ron Lindsay, Mike Steele, and Axel Schweiger (2008). “What Drove the Dramatic Retreat of Arctic Sea Ice during Summer 2007?” Geophysical Research Letters 35: L11505; Stroeve, J., M. Serreze, S. Drobot, S. Gearheard, M. Holland, J. Maslanik, W. Meier, and T. Scambos (2008). “Arctic Sea Ice Extent Plummets in 2007.” EOS 89: No.2 13–20.
7. Lindsay, R. W., and J. Zhang (2005). “The Thinning of Arctic Sea Ice, 1988–2003: Have We Passed a Tipping Point?” Journal of Climate 18: 4879–4894; Holland, Marika M., Cecilia M. Bitz, and Bruno Tremblay (2006). “Future Abrupt Reductions in the Summer Arctic Sea Ice.” Geophysical Research Letters 33: L23503.
8. Gillet, Nathan P., Dáithí A. Stone, Peter A. Stott, Toru Nozawa, Alexey Y. Karpechko, Gabriele Hegerl, Michael F. Wehner, and Philip D. Jones, (2008). “Attribution of Polar Warning to Human Influence.” Nature Geoscience 1: 750–754.
9. Stroeve, Julienne, Marika M. Holland, Walt Meier, Ted Scambos, and Mark Serreze (2007). “Arctic Sea Ice Decline: Faster than Forecast.” Geophysical Research Letters 34: L09501.
10. Serreze, Mark C. and Jennifer A. Francis (2006). “The Arctic Amplification Debate.” Climatic Change 76: 241–264; Serreze, Mark C., and Julienne C. Stroeve (2008). “Standing on the Brink.” Nature Reports Climate Change.
11. Wang, Muyin, and James E. Overland. “A Sea Ice Free Summer Arctic within 30 years?” Geophysical Research Letters 36: L07502.
12. Hansen, James, Makiko Sato, Pushker Kharecha, David Beerling, Robert Berner, Valerie Masson-Delmotte, Mark Pagani, Maureen Raymo, Dana L. Royer, and James C. Zachos (2008). “Atmospheric CO2: Where Should Humanity Aim?” The Open Atmospheric Science Journal 2: 217–231; Beerling, David (2007). The Emerald Planet: How Plants Changed Earth’s History. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
13. Washington, W. M., R. Knutti, G. A. Meehl, H. Teng, C. Tebaldi, D. Lawrence, L. Buja, and W. G. Strand (2009). “How Much Climate Change Can be Avoided by Mitigation?” Geophysical Research Letters 36: L08703.
CHAPTER SEVEN: WHO OWNS THE ARCTIC?
1. Commission of the European Communities (2008). The European Union and the Arctic Region. Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council. Brussels: 20, November 2008. The EU’s interest in the Arctic is driven by its dependence on Arctic energy from Norway and Russia. The logic is spelled out in this paper from Norway’s Foreign Minister. Store, Jonas Gahr (2006). The Emergence of the Barents Sea as a Petroleum Province Implications for Norway and Europe. EPC Policy Briefing. Brussels, October 10, 2006.
2. The White House (2009). Arctic Region Policy. National Security Presidential Directive/NSPD-66, Homeland Security Presidential Directive/ HSPD-25. January 9, 2009.
3. “Basics of the State Policy of the Russian Federation in the Arctic for the Period until 2020.” Rossiyskaya Gazeta March 2009. The Russian Gazette is the Russian State newspaper, and acts of state come into force on publication within it.
4. The Ilulissat Declaration, Arctic Ocean Conference, Ilulissat, Greenland, May 27–29, 2008.
5. European Parliament Resolution on Arctic Governance, Brussels, October 9, 2008.
6. World Wildlife Fund (2008). A New Sea: The Need for a Regional Agreement on Management and Conservation of the Arctic Marine Environment.
7. Srivastava, S. P., H. Varma, and R. Macnab. “The Lomonosov, Alpha and Mendeleev Ridges: Tectonic Scenarios in the Arctic Ocean and the Test of Appurtenance in UNCLOS Article 76.” Kaminsky, V. D., V. A. Poselov, V. Y. Glebovsky, A. V. Zayonchek, and V. V. Butsenko. “Geophysical and Geological Study of the Transition Zone between the Mendeleev Rise and the Adjacent Siberian Shelf: Preliminary Results.”
8. Berkman, P. A., and O. R. Young (2009). “Governance and Environmental Change in the Arctic Ocean.” Science 324: 339–340. Provides an interesting perspective on how “the overlying water column and sea surface of the central Arctic can remain an undisputed international arena in which the interests of Arctic and non-Arctic states alike play a role in the development of effective governance.” See also P. A. Berkman (2009). “North Pole As a Pole of Peace,” The Circle no. 1, pub WWF International Arctic Programme, Oslo.
9. Tan, Alan Khee-Jin (2005). Vessel-Source Marine Pollution: The Law and Politics of International Regulation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
10. Jensen, Øystein (2007). The IMO Guidelines for Ships Operating in Arctic Ice-covered Waters. From Voluntary to Mandatory Tool for Navigation Safety and Environmental Protection? Norway: The Fridtjof Nansen Institute.
11. Corell, Robert (2009). “Climate Change and the Arctic: New Frontiers of National Security. An Overview of the Science and National Security Interests of Climate Change in the Arctic.” Testimony to the Committee on Foreign Relations, U.S. House of Representatives, March 25, 2009. See also www.arcticgovernance.org.
12. McGlade, Jacqueline (2007). “The Arctic Environment—Why Europe Should Care.” A speech to the Arctic Frontiers Conference, Tromsø, January 23, 2007.
13. “Nunavut Premier Wants EU Barred from Arctic Council,” Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) online news Wednesday, April 15, 2009; “EU Not Awarded Permanent Observer Status in Arctic Council,” Inge S. Rasmussen, April 27, 2009, Sermitsiaq, Greenland’s national newspaper.
14. Statement issued by Inuit Leaders at the Inuit Leaders’ Summit on Arctic Sovereignty in Kuujjuaq, November 6–7, 2008.
CHAPTER 8: THE STRANGE CASE OF SVALBARD
1. Svalbard Satellite Station is owned by Kongsberg Satellite Services.
2. EISCAT (European Incoherent Scatter) studies the interaction between the sun and the earth in the magnetosphere and the atmosphere, interactions that give rise to the aurora.
3. Humlum, Ole. A Geographical-Historical Outline of Svalbard. Oslo: University of Oslo.
4. Scoresby, William (1820). An Account of the Arctic Regions with a History and a Description of the Northern Whale-Fishery. Edinburgh: Archibald Constable and Co.
5. Arlov, Thor B. (1989). A Short History of Svalbard. Oslo: Norsk Polarinstitutt, page 3.
6. Arctic Marine Shipping Assessment, page 39.
7. Captain Jonas Poole (1610). Cited in Longyearbyen Museum.
8. Henrat, Philippe (1984). “French Naval Operations in Spitsbergen During Louis XIV’s Reign.” Arctic 37 no. 4: 544–551.
9. Prestvold, Kristin (2001). Smeerenburg Gravneset: Europe’s First Oil Adventure. Longyearbyen, Norway: Governor of Svalbard, Environmental Section.
10. Treaty among Norway, the United States of America, Denmark, France, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, Great Britain, Ireland, the British overseas dominions, and Sweden concerning Spitsbergen, signed in Paris, February 9, 1920.
CHAPTER NINE: TROUBLE AT THE TOP
1. An excellent book on the animals of the Arctic is Blix, Arnoldus Schytte (2005). Arctic Animals and Their Adaptations to Life on the Edge. Trondheim: Tapir Academic Press. A useful
guide for marine mammals is National Audubon Society (2002). Guide to Marine Mammals of the World. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
2. Stirling, Ian (1998). Polar Bears. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, page 118.
3. In note 2 above, page 119.
4. In note 2 above, page 119.
5. In note 2 above, page 118.
6. See papers by M. A. Ramsay, Department of Biology, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Canada.
7. Regehr, E. V., N. J. Lunn, S. C. Amstrup, and I. Stirling (2007). “Effects of Earlier Sea Ice Breakup on Survival and Population Size of Polar Bears in Western Hudson Bay.” Journal of Wildlife Management 71, no. 8: 2673.
8. Durner, George, David Douglas, Ryan Nielson, Steven Amstrup, and Trent McDonald (2007). “Predicting the Future Distribution of Polar Bear Habitat in the Polar Basin from Resource Selection Functions Applied to Twenty-First-Century General Circulation Model Projections of Sea Ice.” U.S Geological Survey.
9. Stirling, Ian, and Thomas G. Smith (2004). “Implications of Warm Temperatures and an Unusual Rain Event for the Survival of Ringed Seals on the Coast of Southeastern Baffin Island.” Arctic 57: 59–67; Stirling, Ian (2005). “Reproductive Rates of Ringed Seals and Survival of Pups in Northwestern Hudson Bay, Canada, 1991–2000.” Polar Biology 28: 381–387; Ferguson, Steven H., Ian Stirling, and Philip McLoughlin (2005). “Climate Change and Ringed Seal (Phoca hispida) Recruitment in Western Hudson Bay.” Marine Mammal Science 21: 121–135.
10. Kovacs, Kit M., and Christian Lydersen (2008). “Climate Change Impacts on Seals and Whales in the North Atlantic Arctic and Adjacent Shelf Seas.” Science Progress 91: 117–150.
11. Population estimate 2.3 to 7 million. Huntington, Henry P., et al. “Arctic Flora and Fauna: Status and Conservation. A report from the Program for the Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna.” Status and Trends in Species and Populations, page 220.
12. In note 11 above, page 220.
13. Cooper, Lee W., Carin J. Ashjian, Sharon L. Smith, Louis A. Codispoti, Jacqueline M. Grebmeier, Robert G. Campbell, and Evelyn B. Sherr (2006). “Rapid Seasonal Sea-Ice Retreat in the Arctic Could Be Affecting Pacific Walrus (Odobenus rosmarus divergens) Recruitment.” Aquatic Mammals 32, no. 1: 98.
14. Seaver, Kirsten A. (1996). The Frozen Echo: Greenland and the Exploration of North America ca. A.D. 1000–1500. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
15. See note 11 above, page 200.
16. A good and entertaining book about the Cook Inlet beluga is Lord, Nancy (2007). Beluga Days: Tracking the Endangered White Whale. Seattle: The Mountaineers Books.
17. See note 11 above, page 219.
18. Laidre, Kristin L., Ian Stirling, Lloyd F. Lowry, Øystein Wiig, Mads Peter Heide-Jørgensen, and Steven H. Ferguson (2008). “Quantifying the Sensitivity of Arctic Marine Mammals to Climate-Induced Habitat Change.” Ecological Applications 18: S97-S125.
CHAPTER TEN: THE BOTTOM OF THE WEB
1. A good overall look at the life at the bottom of the food chain, written principally for specialists, is Thomas, D.N., et al. (2008). The Biology of Polar Regions. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
2. Weissenberger, Jürgen, Rolf Gradinger, et al. (1992). “Sea Ice: A Cast Technique to Examine and Analyze Brine Pockets and Channel Structure.” Limnology and Oceanography 37: 179–183.
3. Krembs. C., R. Gradinger, and M. Spindler (2000). “Implications of Brine Channel Geometry and Surface Area for the Interaction of Sympagic Organisms in Arctic Sea Ice.” Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 243: 55–80.
4. Gradinger, Rolf R. (2001). “Adaptation of Arctic and Antarctic Ice Metazoa to Their Habitat.” Zoology 104: 339–345.
5. Arrigo, Kevin R., Gert van Dijken, and Sudeshna Pabi (2008). “Impact of a Shrinking Arctic Ice Cover on Marine Primary Production.” Geophysical Research Letters 35: L19603.
6. Bluhm, Bodil, and Rolf Gradinger (2008). “Regional Variability in Food Availability for Arctic Marine Mammals.” Ecological Applications 18: S77-S96.
7. Grebmeier, Jacqueline M., James E. Overland, Sue E. Moore, Ed V. Farley, Eddy C. Carmack, Lee W. Cooper, Karen E. Frey, John H. Helle, Fiona A. McLaughlin, and S. Lyn McNutt (2006). “A Major Ecosystem Shift in the Northern Bering Sea.” Science 311: 1461.
8. Frey, Darcy. “George Divoky’s Planet.” New York Times, January 6, 2002.
9. You can see much of Divoky’s research at the Web site of the Friends of Cooper Island, “Monitoring Climate Change with Arctic Seabirds,” cooperisland.org.
10. The video was produced for Polar-Palooza. It is called “George Divoky: The Bird-Watcher Who Saw the Future,” and can be found on YouTube.
CHAPTER ELEVEN: INVADERS FROM THE SOUTH
1. See Chapter Nine, note 10. Higdon, Jeff and Steven Ferguson (2009). “Loss of Arctic Sea Ice Causing Punctuated Change in Sightings of Killer Whales over the Past Century.” Ecological Applications 1: 1365.
2. Berge, Jørgen, et al. (2005) “Ocean Temperature Oscillations Enable Reappearance of Blue Mussels (Mytilus edulis) in Svalbard after a 1000 Year Absence.” Marine Ecology Progress Series 303: 167.
3. Vermeij, Geerat J., and Peter D. Roopnarine (2008). “The Coming Arctic Invasion.” Science 321: 780–781.
4. Greene, Charles H, Andrew J. Pershing, Thomas M. Cronin, and Nicole Ceci (2008). “Arctic Climate Change and Its Impacts on the Ecology of the North Atlantic.” Ecology 89: S24-S38.
5. Stokke, Olav Schram (2003). “Management of Shared Fish Stocks in the Barents Sea.” Papers Presented at the Norway-FAO Expert Consultation on the Management of Shared Fish Stocks Bergen, Norway, 7–10 October 2002, FAO Fisheries Report No. 695 Supplement, Rome: 180–191.
6. Benoit, D., Y. Simard, and L. Fortier (2008). “Hydroacoustic Detection of Large Winter Aggregations of Arctic Cod (Boreogadus saida) at Depth in Ice-Covered Franklin Bay (Beaufort Sea).” Journal of Geophysical Research 113: C06S90.
7. Moore, Sue E., and Henry P. Huntington (2008). “Arctic Marine Mammals and Climate Change Impacts and Resilience.” Ecological Applications 18: S157-S165.
CHAPTER TWELVE: THE BATTLE FOR ARCTIC OIL
1. See also Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP). Arctic Oil and Gas, 2007.
2. Hess, Bill (1999). Gift of the Whale: The Inupiat Bowhead Hunt, a Sacred Tradition. Seattle: Sasquatch Books.
3. The Arctic Energy Summit Technology Conference, Anchorage, Alaska, October 15–18, 2007.
4. “Economic Analysis of Future Offshore Oil and Gas Development: Beaufort Sea, Chukchi Sea, and North Aleutian Basin.” Prepared for Shell Exploration and Production by Northern Economics, March 2009.
5. Niini, Mikko, Sergey Kaganov, and Robert D. Tustin (2007). Development of Arctic Double Acting Shuttle Tankers for the Prirazlomnoye Project. TSCF 2007 Shipbuilders Meeting.
6. The Oslo-based environmental group Bellona has produced a report on the dangers of offshore oil and gas development in the Russian Arctic by Nina Lesikhina, Irina Rudaya, and Anna Kireeva. See www.bellona.org.
7. Bid prices and conditions are listed on the Web site of Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, www.ainc-inac.gc.ca.
CHAPTER THIRTEEN: HOW FAR CAN OIL GO?
1. The logbook of the Arctic Coring Expedition 2004 can be found at the Web site of the University of Bremen Center for Marine Environmental Sciences, www.marum.de/en/Expedition_Logbook.html.
2. Stoll, Heather M. (2006). “Climate Change: The Arctic Tells Its Story.” Nature 441: 579–581.
3. Paulin, Michael J. Arctic Offshore Technology Assessment of Exploration and Production Options for Cold Regions of the U.S. Outer Continental Shelf. IMV Projects Atlantic Inc., St. John’s, Newfoundland, Canada for the U.S. Minerals Management Service. February 6, 2008; see also “Oil and Gas Technologies for the Arctic and Deepwater.” U.S. Congress Office of Technology Assessment (1985).
CHAPTER FOURTEEN: TOO MANY SHIPS, TOO SOON?
1. Arctic Marine Shipping Assessment (AMSA) 2009 Report, Arctic Council, Ap
ril 2009.
2. Opening the Arctic Seas: Envisioning Disaster & Framing Solutions. March 18–20, 2008. The University of New Hampshire.
3. A gripping account is found in Jeffers, H. Paul (2006). Burning Cold: The Cruiseship Prinsendam and the Greatest Sea Rescue of All Time. Motorhead Books.
4. Bambulyak, Alexei, and Bjørn Frantzen (2008). Oil Transport from the Russian Part of the Barents Region. Report of the Norwegian Barents Secretariat. Akvaplan-niva AS.
5. Polar Icebreakers in a Changing World: An Assessment of U.S. Needs. National Academy of Engineering 2007.
6. Niini, Mikko, Sergey Kaganov, and Robert D. Tustin (2007). Development of Arctic Double Acting Shuttle Tankers for the Prirazlomnoye Project. TSCF 2007 Shipbuilders Meeting.
7. See note 1 above, page 82.
8. There are numerous books on the Northwest Passage and the explorers who died trying to find their way through it. The first success was in the ship Gjøa, which now sits outside the museum in Oslo built to house the Fram. Anundsen’s own account of the voyage is strongly recommended. Amundsen, Roald (2006). The North West Passage: Being the Record of a Voyage of Exploration of the Ship Gjøa. Elibron Classics.
A really excellent account of the various expeditions including those to the pole is Berton, Pierre (2000). Arctic Grail: The Quest for the Northwest Passage and the North Pole, 1818–1909. New York: The Lyon Press.
There are many books on the Franklin expedition and the continuing mystery of where the two ships sank and exactly what happened to the crew as they plodded south across the ice in the hope of reaching settlements far away in Canada. Whether they resorted to cannibalism on route remains controversial. Much depends on the accounts collected from Inuit living in the area. There are two books that take a unique perspective. One looks at John Rae, the explorer who first found traces of the missing expedition and brought back news that Victorian Britain did not want to hear. McGoogan, Ken (2001). Fatal Passage: The Story of John Rae, The Arctic Hero Time Forgot. New York: Carroll & Graf. The other looks in great detail at the Inuit testimony and is a wonderful book about this fascinating mystery. Woodman, David C. (1992) Unravelling the Franklin Mystery: Inuit Testimony. Montreal, Canada: McGill–Queen’s University Press.
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