9. See note 1 above, page 21.
10. “First Commercial Ship Sails through Northwest Passage,” Canadian Broadcasting Corporation online news service, November 28, 2008.
11. Decision of the Commissioner of Maritime Affairs of the Republic of Liberia and the Report of Investigation in the Matter of Sinking of Passenger Vessel MV Explorer 23 November 2007 in the Bransfield Strait near the South Shetland Islands. Bureau of Maritime Affairs, March 26, 2009, Monrovia, Liberia.
12. See note 1, pages 160 and 166.
13. Norwegian Atlantic Committee (2006). “Developments in Arctic Shipping.” Focus North, No. 8; The Company of Master Mariners of Canada, the Marine Affairs Program of Dalhousie University; Lloyd’s Register, North America (2007). Canadian Arctic Issues in a Changing Climate.
14. See note 1, page 33.
15. See note 1, page 44.
16. See note 1, page 44.
17. These include the International Northern Sea Route Programme (IN-SROP), which ran from 1993 to 1999 and the Arctic Operational Platform (ARCOP).
18. “Breaking The Ice. Arctic Development and Maritime Transportation: Prospects of the Transarctic Route—Impact and Opportunities,” for Arctic Council’s Arctic Marine Shipping Assessment, March 27–28, 2007, Akureyri, Iceland.
19. See note 1, page 105.
20. Niini, M., M. Arpiainen, and R. Kiili (2006). “Arctic Shuttle Container Link from Alaska, U.S. to Europe.” Arker Arctic Technology Inc. Report K–63.
21. Committee on Cumulative Environmental Effects of Oil and Gas Activities on Alaska’s North Slope, National Research Council of the National Academies (2003). “Cumulative Environmental Effects of Oil and Gas Activities on Alaska’s North Slope.” Washington, D.C: The National Academies Press.
22. The full story is found in Marine Accident Brief Accident No.: DCA-05-MM-008; Bulk Carrier M/V Selendang Ayu (2006). National Transportation Safety Board, Washington, D.C.
23. World Wildlife Fund (2007). “Oil Spill: Response Challenges in Arctic Waters.”
24. Shell Exploration and Production Co. (2007). Shell’s Beaufort Sea Exploratory Drilling Program Oil Spill Response.
25. Camphuysen, Kees. Chronic Oil Pollution in Europe: A Status Report. The International Fund for Animal Welfare, IFAW.org.
26. See the Circumpolar Vulnerability Maps prepared by Hein Rune Skjoldal of the Institute of Marine Research, Bergen, Norway, for Chapter 6 of the Arctic Council/AMAP Assessment of Oil and Gas Activities in the Arctic.
27. Testimony by Mead Treadwell to the House Committee on Foreign Affairs (2009). Climate Change and the Arctic: New Frontiers of National Security, March 25, 2009.
CHAPTER FIFTEEN: THE ARCTIC’S REVENGE
1. Stroeve, J.C., et al. (2008). “Emerging Arctic Amplification as Seen in the NCEP/NCAR Reanalysis.” EOS, Transactions American Geophysical Union 89: Abstract C41B-0502.
2. Francis, Jennifer A., Weihan Chan, Daniel J. Leathers, James R. Miller, and Dana E. Veron (2009). “Winter Northern Hemisphere Weather Patterns Remember Summer Arctic Sea-Ice Extent.” Geophysical Research Letters 36: L07503.
3. Lawrence, David M., Andrew G. Slater, Robert A. Tomas, Marika M. Holland, and Clare Deser (2008). “Accelerated Arctic Land Warming and Permafrost Degradation During Rapid Sea Loss.” Geophysical Research Letters 35: L11506.
4. Sturm, Matthew, Josh Schimel, Gary Michaelson, Jeffrey M. Welker, Steven F. Oberbauer, Glen E. Liston, Jace Fahnestock, and Vladimir E. Romanovsky (2005). “Winter Biological Processes Could Help Convert Arctic Tundra to Shrubland.” BioScience 55: 17–26; (2008). Chapin III, F. S., M. Sturm, M. C. Serreze, J. P. McFadden, J. R. Key, A. H. Lloyd, A. D. McGuire, T. S. Rupp, A. H. Lynch, J. P. Schimel, J. Beringer, W. L. Chapman, H. E. Epstein, E. S. Euskirchen, L. D. Hinzman, G. Jia, C.-L. Ping, K. D. Tape, C. D. C. Thompson, D. A. Walker, and J. M. Welker (2005). “Role of Land-Surface Changes in Arctic Summer Warming.” Science 310: 657–660.
5. Plant growth may initially help offset carbon lost as permafrost thaws, but it will be unable to keep up, and thawing Arctic soil could add a billion tons of carbon per year to the atmosphere. See Vogel, Jason G., Kathryn G. Crummer, Hanna Lee, James O. Sickman, T. E. Osterkamp, Edward A. G. Schuur (2009). “The Effect of Permafrost Thaw on Old Carbon Release and Net Carbon Exchange from Tundra.” Nature 459: 556–559.
6. Tedesco, M., X. Fettweis, M. van den Broeke, R. van de Wal, and P. Smeets (2008). “Melting and Surface Mass Balance over the Greenland Ice Sheet from Satellite Data, Model Results and Ground Measurements During IPY: Extreme Events and Updated Trends.” EOS, Transactions American Geophysical Union 89, no. 53, Fall Meet. Suppl., Abstract U23F–01; Tedesco, M., X. Fettweis, M. van den Broeke, R. van de Wal, and P. Smeets (2008). “Extreme Snowmelt in Northern Greenland During Summer 2008.” EOS, Transactions American Geophysical Union 89, no. 41.
7. Tedesco, M. (2007). “A New Record in 2007 for Melting in Greenland.” EOS, Transactions American Geophysical Union 88, no. 39.
8. A well-illustrated and informative book on the Ilulissat World Heritage Site and the history of the glacier is Bennike, Ole, et al. (2004). Ilulissat Icef-jord. Copenhagen: Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland.
9. Rignot, Eric, and Pannir Kanagaratnam (2006). “Changes in the Velocity Structure of the Greenland Ice Sheet.” Science 311: 986–990.
10. Rignot, E., J. E. Box, E. Burgess, and E. Hanna (2008). “Mass Balance of the Greenland Ice Sheet from 1958–2007.” Geophysical Research Letters 35: L20502.
11. Joughin, Ian (2008). “Seasonal Speedup Along the Western Flank of the Greenland Ice Sheet.” Science 320: 781.
12. Holland, David M., Robert H. Thomas, Brad De Young, Mads H. Riber-gaard, and Bjarne Lyberth (2008). “Acceleration of Jakobshavn Isbræ Triggered by Warm Subsurface Ocean Waters.” Nature Geoscience 1: 659.
13. Shepherd, Andrew, and Duncan Wingham (2007). “Recent Sea-Level Contributions of the Antarctic and Greenland Ice Sheets.” Science 315: 1529-1532; Dowdeswell, Julian A. (2006). “The Greenland Ice Sheet and Global Sea-Level Rise.” Science 311: 963–964.
14. Pfeffer, W. T., J. T. Harper, and S. O’Neel (2008). “Kinematic Constraints on Glacier Contributions to 21st-Century Sea-Level Rise.” Science 321: 1340–1343.
15. Walter, K. M., S. A. Zimov, J. P. Chanton, D. Verbyla, and F. S. Chapin III (2006). “Methane Bubbling from Siberian Thaw Lakes as a Positive Feedback to Climate Warming.” Nature 443: 71–75; Walter, K. M., M. E. Edwards, G. Grosse, S. A. Zimov, and F. S. Chapin III (2007). “Thermokarst Lakes as a Source of Atmospheric CH4 During the Last Deglaciation.” Science 318: 633–636.
16 Petrenko, Vasilii (2009). Science 324: 506. “CH4 Measurements in Greenland Ice: Investigating Last Glacial Termination CH4 Sources.”
17. Archer, D. (2007). “Methane hydrate stability and anthropogenic climate change.” Biogeosciences 4: 521–544; Archer, David (2009). The Long Thaw: How Humans are Changing the Next 100,000 Years of Earth’s Climate. Princeton: Princeton University Press. An excellent book describing the real threat—not so much the immediate change to climate but the long-term impacts we are having on the planet.
18. Romanovsky, V. E., et al. (2008). “Change in permafrost in Northern Eurasia.” EOS, Transactions American Geophysical Union 89: Abstract GC52A–04.
19. Lawrence, David M., and Andrew G. Slater (2005). “A Projection of Severe Near-Surface Permafrost Degradation During the Twenty-first Century.” Geophysical Research Letters 32: L24401.
20. Lawrence, David M., Andrew G. Slater, Vladimir E. Romanovsky, and Dmitry J. Nicolsky (2008). “Sensitivity of a model projection of near-surface permafrost degradation to soil column depth and representation of soil organic matter.” Journal of Geophysical Research 113: F02011.
21. Zimov, Sergey A., Edward A. G. Schuur, and F. Stuart Chapin III (2006). “Permafrost and the Global Carbon Budget.” Science 312: 1612–1613.
22. Khvorostyanov, D. V., P. Ciais, G. Krinner, and S. A. Zimov (2008). “Vulnerability of Eas
t Siberia’s Frozen Carbon Stores to Future Warming.” Geophysical Research Letters 35: L10703.
23. Greene, Charles H, Andrew J. Pershing, Thomas M. Cronin, and Nicole Ceci (2008). “Arctic Climate Change and Its Impacts on the Ecology of the North Atlantic.” Ecology 89: S24-S38.
24. Zimov, Sergey, et al. (2008). “Carbon Storage in Frozen Loess and Soils of the Mammoth Tundra-Steppe Biome.” EOS, Transactions American Geophysical Union 89: Abstract B23B-0429. Zimov, Sergey (2005). “Pleistocene Park.” Science 308: 796.
CHAPTER SIXTEEN: BLACK AND WHITE
1. Nordenskiöld, Adolf Erik (1879). The Arctic Voyages of Nordenskiöld, 1858–1879. Macmillan and Co.; Nordenskiöld, Adolf Erik (2008). Voyage of the Vega. Hesperides Press.
2. Nordenskiöld, Adolf Erik (1883). “Nordenskiöld on the Inland Ice of Greenland.” Science 2, no. 44: 732.
3. Garrett, Timothy J., and Lisa L. Verzella (2008). “Looking Back: An Evolving History of Arctic Aerosols.” Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 89, no. 3: 299.
4. McConnell, Joseph R., Ross Edwards, Gregory L. Kok, Mark G. Flanner, Charles S. Zender, Eric S. Saltzman, J. Ryan Banta, Daniel R. Pasteris, Megan M, Carter, and Jonathan D. W. Kahl (2007). “Twentieth-Century Industrial Black Carbon Emissions Altered Arctic Climate Forcing.” Science 317: 1381; Alley, Richard B. (2000). The Two-Mile Time Machine: Ice Cores, Abrupt Climate Change, and Our Future. Princeton: Princeton University Press; The classic account of coring ice and reconstructing past climate. Turney, Chris (2008). Ice, Mud and Blood: Lessons from Climates Past. New York: Macmillan. Another interesting book.
5. Garrett, Timothy J., and Chuanfeng Zhao (2006). “Increased Arctic Cloud Long-Wave Emissivity Associated with Pollution from Mid-Latitudes.” Nature 440: 787–789.
6. “A Discussion of Near-term Strategies for Slowing Warming in the Arctic: Short-term Pollutants and Arctic Warming.” Oslo, Norway, November 7–8, 2007.
7. Zender, Charles S. (2007). “Arctic Climate Effects of Black Carbon.” U.S. House of Representatives. Written testimony to the Oversight and Government Reform Committee; Hansen, James, and Larissa Nazarenko (2004). “Soot Climate Forcing via Snow and Ice Albedos.” PNAS 101, no. 2: 423–428.
8. Flanner, M. G., Charles S. Zender, P. G. Hess, N. M. Mahowald, T. H. Painter, V. Ramanathan, and P. J. Rasch (2008). “Springtime Warming and Reduced Snow Cover from Carbonaceous Particles.” Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics Discussion 8: 19819–19859.
9. Quinn, P. K., T. S. Bates, E. Baum, N. Doubleday, A. M. Fiore, M. Flanner, A. Fridlind, T. J. Garrett, D. Koch, S. Menon, D. Shindell, A. Stohl, and S. G. Warren (2007). “Short-Lived Pollutants in the Arctic: Their Climate Impact and Possible Mitigation Strategies.” Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics Discussion 7: 15669–15692; Quinn, P. K., et al. (2008). “The Impact of Short-Lived Pollutants on Arctic Climate.” Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme Technical Report No 1.
10. Robert Watson, a former head of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) chaired a session on aerosols and Arctic warming in Poznan.
11. Quinn, P. K., et al. (2008). “The Impact of Short-Lived Pollutants on Arctic Climate.” Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme Technical Report No 1; Bluestein, J., J. Rackley, and E. Baum (2008). “Sources and Mitigation Opportunities to Reduce Emissions of Short-term Arctic Climate Forcers.” Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme Technical Report No 2; Reducing Black Carbon May Be Faster Strategy for Slowing Climate Change (2008) IGSD/INECE Climate Briefing Note.
12. Stohl, A., T. Berg, J. F. Burkhart, A. M. Fjæraa, C. Forster, A. Herber, Ø. Hov, C. Lunder, W. W. McMillan, S. Oltmans, M. Shiobara, D. Simpson, S. Solberg, K. Stebel, J. Ström, K. Tørseth, R. Treffeisen, K. Virkkunen, and K. E. Yttri (2007). “Arctic Smoke—Record High Air Pollution Levels in the European Arctic Due to Agricultural Fires in Eastern Europe in Spring 2006.” Norway Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 7: 511–534.; Law, Kathy S. and Andreas Stohl (2007). “Arctic Air Pollution: Origins and Impacts.” Science 315: 1537.
13 Warneke, C., R. Bahreini, J. Brioude, C. A. Brock, J. A. de Gouw, D. W. Fahey, K. D. Froyd, J. S. Holloway, A. Middlebrook, L. Miller, S. Montzka, D. M. Murphy, J. Peischl, T. B. Ryerson, J. P. Schwarz, J. R. Spackman, and P. Veres. (2009) “Biomass Burning in Siberia and Kazakhstan as an Important Source for Haze over the Alaskan Arctic in April 2008.” Geophysical Research Letters 36: L02813.
14. Pettus, Ashley. (2009) Agricultural Fires and Arctic Climate Change. Clean Air Task Force.
15. Nordenskiöld, Adolf Erik (1883). “Nordenskiöld on the Inland Ice of Greenland.” Science 2, no. 44: 733.
CHAPTER SEVENTEEN: THE FUTURE OF THE ARCTIC
1. “Glacial El Dorado: Spitsbergen” (2001). Moscow: Punta.
2. The company is called “Xconomy.com.”
3. Arnason, Ragnar (2008). “Climate Change and Fisheries: Assessing the Economic Impact in Iceland and Greenland.” Natural Resource Modeling 20: 163–197
4. Brigham, Lawson (2007). “Thinking about the Arctic’s Future: Scenarios for 2040.” The Futurist. September/October; Brunstad, Bjørn. “Arctic Shipping 2030” From Russia with Oil, Stormy Passage or Arctic Great Game? commissioned by Nor-Shipping from Econ, Oslo.
SEARCHABLE TERMS
Note: Entries in this index, carried over verbatim from the print edition of this title, are unlikely to correspond to the pagination of any given e-book reader. However, entries in this index, and other terms, may be easily located by using the search feature of your e-book reader.
Aajiiqatigiinniq, 31
Aariak, Eva, 119
Aboriginal Pipeline Group, 193
Abramovich, Roman, 54
“Abrupt ice loss events,” 95
Aerosols, 248–50
Air pollution, 247–54
Air temperatures, 79
Air travel, 16
Aker Arctic, 188–90, 205, 213, 218
Alaska Eskimo Whaling Commission, 181–82
Albedo, 86–89, 93, 228, 247
Algae, 150–51, 153–59
Alpha Mendeleyev Ridge, 110, 111
Amagoalik, John, 23–25, 27, 32–33, 35, 36, 40, 262
American Geophysical Union, 96, 154, 230, 237
Amoco Cadiz oil spill, 223, 224
Amphipods, 154, 177
AMSR-E (Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer), 5
Amstrup, Steven, 140–41
Amundsen, 91
Amundsen, Roald, 63, 205, 251–52
Amundsen basin, 12, 80
Andreeva, Elena, 51
An Inconvenient Truth (documentary), 235
Antarctic Treaty, 105
Aqiatusuk, Paddy, 23–24, 25
Archer, Colin, 61
Arctic cod, 154, 157, 163–64, 176–78, 223
Arctic Council, 21, 105–6, 118–19, 174, 310
Arctic ecosystem. See Food chain
Arctic expeditions, history of, 59–66
Arctic Frontiers Conference (2008), 43, 50, 183, 186
Arctic invaders, 165–73
Arctic mapping, 108–12
Arctic Marine Shipping Assessment (AMSA) Report, 209–12, 218, 219
Arctic National Security Directive, 104
Arctic Oscillation, 68–69, 70, 87
“Arctic’s Revenge,” 10, 228
Arctic Waters Pollution Prevention Act, 117
Arrigo, Kevin, 154
Article 76 of the Law of the Sea, 106–7, 108, 110
Article 122 of the Law of the Sea, 118
Article 123 of the Law of the Sea, 118
Article 211(6) of the Law of the Sea, 117
Article 219 of the Law of the Sea, 117
Article 234 of the Law of the Sea, 8, 116–17
Ashjian, Carin, 145
Atlantic cod, 157, 170, 174–76
Atlantic layer, 81
Atlantic Ocean, fisheries, 175
Atmospheric circulation patterns, 88–89, 229–30
ice flow and, 68–70, 78–79, 84
Auks, 169
Avatittinnik/Kamatsiarniq, 31
Ayles Ice Sheet, 4, 255
Baffin Bay, 12, 147–48, 262
Baffinland, 38–40
Baleen whales, 169
Bancroft, Douglas, 4, 215–16, 255–56
Barber, David, 91, 96
Barents, William, 124
Barentsburg, 123, 127, 129
Barents Sea, 12, 173–74, 194–95
Basel Convention on Hazardous Wastes, 118
Baton Rouge, USS, 72
Beauchamp, Benoît, 192
Beaufort Gyre, 65–66, 68–69, 142
Beaufort Sea, 86–87, 141, 184–85, 192, 199
Beerling, David, 98
Beluga whales, 20–21, 146–48, 167–68
Benton, David, 176
Berge, Jørgen, 155–58, 160, 163–64, 170
Berger, Thomas, 34, 192
Bering, Vitus, 14
Bering Sea, 158–59, 173–74, 175
Bering Strait, 12, 217
Bird life, 159–66
Black carbon emissions, 247–54
Black guillemots, 161–64
Blue mussels, 170
Bovanenkovo Field, 43, 46
Bowhead whales, 124–25, 146–47, 168, 170, 182
Brigham, Lawson, 262
British Petroleum (BP), 186, 187
Brown bears, 137
Brunstad, Bjørn, 262
Buist, Ian, 222
Bullwinkle, 202
Buoys, 66–67, 85–86
Bush, George W., 104
Calanus finmarchicus, 157–58
Calanus glacialis, 156–58
Camilla Desgagnés, 215
Camphuysen, Kees, 223
Canadian Ice Service, 3, 4, 215–16, 255
Carbon dioxide, 98, 99, 240–42, 249, 250, 251
CCSM3 (Community Climate System Model 3), 94–95
Center for Biological Diversity, 143
Centre for Military and Strategic Studies, 114–15
After the Ice Page 32