The King's City

by Don Jordan

  Among Robert Boyle’s papers is a handwritten ‘wish list’ of twenty-four advances he would have liked to see come to pass. Among them was ‘the prolongation of life’– thanks to improved hygiene, diet and modern medicine, life has indeed been prolonged. He wished for ‘the recovery of youth, or at least some of the marks of it, as new teeth, new hair coloured as in youth’, a wish fulfilled thanks to dental implants, hair colouring and follicle implanting. There is also the wish for ‘the cure of diseases at a distance or at least by transplantation’, which has come about in part in the form of organ transplants. Boyle washed for potent drugs to alter or exalt imagination . . . appease pain, procure innocent sleep, harmless dreams, etc’, all come to pass thanks to pharmaceutical advances.12

  Despite such intellectual fireworks, to sum up the inquiring mind of mid- to late seventeenth-century London, it is to Robert Hooke we must turn, in particular to his engraving of the humble leaf, taken from Micrographia. This one image may stand for all the extraordinary events and discoveries in London during the rumbustious and turbulent reign of Charles IÏ. Having observed the structure of a piece of cork, Hooke then turned his attention to a leaf and noticed the same arrangement on a much smaller scale. The leaf was made up of repeated, tiny interlinked structures. He called these structures cells’, from the Latin cella, meaning a small room. It would take until 1847 for cell theory to develop, but Hooke had helped to create the pathway for cell biology. He and other seventeenth-century investigators had, with their microscopes, set the ball rolling towards the double helix of DNA – what we now call ‘the building blocks of life’.

  * Collier, though ordained, refused to recognise William and Mary and so was unlicensed by the Anglican Church.

  † His image seemed lost to os until 2005 when Professor Liza jardine published her biography of Hooke, reproducing what she claimed was a portrait long subject to misattribution. However, Andreas Peclitl and William jensen have since separately argued the portrait is in a fact that of the Flemish chemist j.-P. van Helmont.

  ‡ Credited by some to Hooke and by others to dockmaker William Clement. Hooke seems to have been the earlier.

  § For a short description of how this came about, see Appendix V.

  ¶ By the time of India’s independence from British role in 1947, Bombay - now Mumbai - had a population of 2.3 million.

  APPENDIX I: THOMAS MUN, ENGLAND’S TREASURE

  Thomas Mun’s instructions to his son John on how to be a good merchant, written in 1628, published as England’s Treasure, in 1664:

  My Son, In a former Discourse I have endeavoured after my manner briefly to teach thee two things: The first is Piety, how to fear God aright, according to his Works and Word: The second is Policy, how to love and serve thy Country, by instructing thee in the duties and proceedings of sundry Vocations, which either order, or else act the affairs of the Common-wealth; In which as some things doe especially lend to Preserve, and others are more apt to Enlarge the same: So am I now to speak of Money, which doth indifferently [unconsciously] serve to both those happy ends. Wherein I will observe this order, First, to show the general means whereby a Kingdome may be enriched; and then to proceed to those particular courses by which Princes are accustomed to be supplyed with Treasure. But first of all I will say something of the Merchant, because he must be a Principal Agent in this great business.

  The Qualities which are required in a perfect Merchant of Forraign Trade.

  The love and service of our Country consisteth not so much in the knowledge of those duties which are to be performed by others, as in the skilful practice of that which is done our selves; and therefore (my Son) it is now fit that I say something of the Merchant, which I hope in due time shall be thy Vocation; Yet herein are my thoughts free from all Ambition, although I rank thee in a place of so high esteem; for the Merchant is worthily called The Stewart of the Kingdoms Stock, by way of Commerce with other Nations; a work of no less Reputation than Trust, which ought to be performed with great skill and conscience, that so the private gain may ever accompany the publique good. And because the nobleness of this profession may the better stir up thy desires and endeavours to obtain those abilities which may effect it worthily, I will briefly set down the excellent qualities which are required in a perfect Merchant.

  1. He ought to be a good Penman, a good Arithmetician, and a good Accountant, by that noble order of Debtor and Creditor, which is used only amongst Merchants; also to be expert in the order and form of Charter-parties, Bills of Lading, Invoices, Contracts, Bills of Exchange, and policies of Insurance.

  2. He ought to know the Measures, Weights, and Monies of all foreign Countries, especially where we have Trade, & the Monies not only by their several denominations, but also by their intrinsic values in weight & fineness, compared with the Standard of this Kingdome, without which he cannot well direct his affairs.

  3. He ought to know the Customs, Tolls, Taxes, Impositions, Conducts and other charges upon all matters of Merchandise exported or imported to and from the said Foreign Countries.

  4. He ought to know in what several commodities each Country abounds, and what be the wares which they want [lack], and how and from whence they are furnished with the same.

  5. He ought to understand, and to be a diligent observer of the rates of Exchanges by Bills, from one State to another, whereby he may the better direct his affairs, and remit over and receive home his Monies to the most advantage possible.

  6. He ought to know what goods are prohibited to be exported or imported in the said foreign Countries, lest otherwise he should incur great danger and loss in the ordering of his affairs.

  7. He ought to know upon what rates and conditions to freight his Ships, and ensure his adventures from one Countrey to another, and to be well acquainted with the laws, orders and customs of the Insurance office both here and beyond the Seas, in the many accidents which may happen upon the damage or loss of Ships or goods, or both these.

  8. He ought to have knowledge in the goodness and in the prices of all the several materials which are required for the building and repairing of Ships, and the diverse workmanships of the same, as also for the Masts, Tackling, Cordage, Ordnance, Victuals, Munition and Provisions of many kinds; together with the ordinary wages of Commanders, Officers and Mariners, all which concern the Merchant as he is an Owner of Ships.

  9. He ought (by the diverse occasions which happen sometime in the buying and selling of one commodity and sometimes in another) to have indifferent if not perfect knowledge in all manner of Merchandise or wares, which is to be as it were a man of all occupations and trades.

  10. He ought by his voyaging on the Seas to become skilful in the Art of Navigation.

  11. He ought as he is a Traveler, and sometimes abiding in foreign Countreys to attain to the speaking of diverse Languages, and to be a diligent observer of the ordinary Revenues and expences of foreign Princes, together with their strength both by Sea and Land, their laws, customes, policies, manners, religions, arts, and the like; to be able to give account thereof in all occasions for the good of his Countrey.

  12. Lastly, although there be no necessity that such a Merchant should be a great Scholar; yet is it (at least) required, that in his youth he learn the Latin tongue, which will the better enable him in all the rest of his endeavours.

  APPENDIX II: THE NAVIGATION ACT 1660

  Here is the first clause of the Navigation Act of 1660, setting out its wide-ranging and restrictive powers (for the complete Act see ‘An Act for the Encourageing and increasing of Shipping and Navigation’, in Statutes of the Realm, vol. 5, 1628–80, ed. John Raithby, 1819):

  No Goods shall be imported to or exported from Asia, Africa, or America, but in English Ships, and Master and Three-fourths of Mariners English.; Penalty.; Admirals, &c. empowered to seize and bring in as Prize all Ships offending.; Proceedings in case of Condemnation.

  FOR the increase of Shiping and incouragement of the Navigation of this Nation, wheri
n under the good providence and protection of God the Wealth Safety and Strength of this Kingdome is soe much concerned Bee it Enacted by the King’s most Excellent Majesty and by the Lords and Co[m] mons in this present Parliament, assembled and the Authoritie therof That from and after the First day of December One thousand six hundred and sixty and from thence forward noe Goods or Commodities whatsoever shall be Imported into or Exported out of any Lands Islelands Plantations or Territories to his Majesty belonging or in his possession or which may hereafter belong unto or be in the possession of His Majesty His Heires and Successors in Asia Africa or America in any other Ship or Ships Vessell or Vessells whatsoever but in such Ships or Vessells as doe truely and without fraude belong onely to the people of England or Ireland Dominion of Wales or Towne of Berwicke upon Tweede, or are of the built of, and belonging to any of the said Lands Islands Plantations or Territories as the Proprietors and right Owners therof and wherof the Master and three fourthes of the Marriners at least are English under the penalty of the Forfeiture and Losse of all the Goods and Commodityes which shall be Imported into, or Exported out of, any the aforesaid places in any other Ship or Vessell, as alsoe of the Ship or Vessell with all its Guns Furniture Tackle Ammunition and Apparell, one third part thereof to his Majesty his Heires and Successors, one third part to the Governour of such Land Plantation Island or Territory where such default shall be commited in case the said Ship or Goods be there seised, or otherwise that third part alsoe to his Majesty his Heires and Successors, and the other third part to him or them who shall Seize Informe or sue for the same in any Court of Record by Bill Information Plaint or other Action wherin noe Essoigne Protection or Wager of Law shall be allowed, And all Admiralls and other Commanders at Sea of any the Ships of War or other Ship haveing Co[m]mission from His Majesty or from his Heires or Successors are hereby authorized and strictly required to seize and bring in as prize all such Ships or Vessells as shall have offended contrary hereunto and deliver them to the Court of Admiralty there to be proceeded against and in case of condemnation one moyety of such Forfeitures shall be to the use of such Admiralls or Commanders and their Companies to be divided and proportioned amongst them according to the Rules and Orders of the Sea in [cases] of Ships taken prize, and the other moyety to the use of his Majesty his Heires and Successors.

  APPENDIX III:

  ROBERT BOYLE’S DESIDERATA

  A list of twenty-four developments Boyle wished to see in the future.

  The Prolongation of Life.

  The Recovery of Youth, or at least some of the Marks of it, as new Teeth, new Hair colour’d as in youth.

  The Art of Flying.

  The Art of Continuing long under water, and exercising functions freely there.

  The Cure of Wounds at a Distance.

  The Cure of Diseases at a distance or at least by Transplantation.

  The Attaining Gigantick Dimensions.

  The Emulating of Fish without Engines by Cnstome and Education only.

  The Acceleration of the Production of things out of Seed.

  The Transmutation of Metalls.

  The makeing of Glass Malleable.

  The Transmutation of Species in Mincralls, Animals, and Vegetables.

  The Liquid Alkaest and Other dissolving Menstruums.

  The making of Parabolicall and Hyperbolicall Glasses.

  The making Armor light and extremely hard.

  The practicable and certain way of finding Longitudes.

  The use of Pendulums at Sea and in Journeys, and the Application of it to watches.

  Potent Druggs to alter or Exalt Imagination, Waking, Memory, and other functions, and appease pain, procure innocent sleep, harmless dreams, etc.

  A Ship to saile with All Winds, and A Ship not to be Sunk.

  Freedom from Necessity of much Sleeping exemplify’d by the Operations of Tea and what happens in Mad-Men.

  Pleasing Dreams and physicall Exercises exemplify’d by the Egyptian Electuary and by the Fungus mentioned by the French Author.

  Great Strength and Agility of Body exemplify’d by that of Frantick Epileptick and Hystericall persons.

  A perpetuall Light.

  Varnishes perfumable by Rubbing.

  APPENDIX IV:

  BRIEF OBSERVATIONS CONCERNING TRADE AND INTEREST OF MONEY,

  BY JOSIAH CHILD, 1668

  The prodigious increase of the Netherlanders in their domestick and forreign Trade, Riches, and multitude of Shipping, is the envy of the present, and may be the wonder of all future Generations: And yet the means whereby they have thus advanced themselves, are sufficiently obvious, and in a great measure imitable by most other Nations, but more easily by us of this Kingdom of England, which I shall endeavour to demonstrate in the following discourse.

  Some of the said means by which they have advanced their Trade, and thereby improved their Estates, are these following:

  First, They have in their greatest Councils of State and War, trading Merchants that have lived abroad in most parts of the World; who have not onely the Theoretical Knowledge, but the Practical Experience of Trade, by whom Laws, and Orders are contrived, and Peaces with forreign Princes projected, to the great advantage of their Trade.

  Secondly, Their Law of Gavel-kind, whereby all their Children possess an equal share of their Fathers Estates after their decease, and so are not left to wrastle with the world in their youth, with inconsiderable assistance of fortune, as most of our youngest Sons of Gentlemen in England are, who are bound Apprentices to Merchants.

  Thirdly, Their exact making of all their Native Commodities, and packing of their Herrings, Codfish, and all other Commodities, which they send abroad in great quantities; the consequence whereof is, That the repute of their said Commodities abroad continues always good, and the Buyers will accept of them by the marks, without opening; whereas the Fish which our English make in Newfound-Land and New-England, and Herrings at Yarmouth, often prove false and deceitfully made, and our Pilchards from the West Country false packed; seldom containing the quantity for which the Hogsheads are marked in which they are packed.

  And in England the attempts which our fore-fathers made for Regulating of Manufactures, when left to the Execution of some particular person, in a short time resolved but into a Tax upon the Commodity, without respect to the goodness thereof; as most notoriously appears in the business of the AULNAGE, which doubtless our Predecessors intended for a scrutiny in o the goodness of the Commodity; and to that purpose a Seal was invented, as a signal that the Commodity was made according to the Statutes, which Seals it is said, may now be bought by Thousands, and put upon what the Buyers please.

  Fourthly, Their giving great incouragement and immunities to the Inventors of New Manufactures, and the Discoverers of any New Mysteries in Trade, and to those that shall bring the Commodities of other Nations first in use and practise amongst them; for which the Author never goes without his due Reward allowed him at the Publique Charge.

  Fifthly, Their contriving and building of great Ships to sail with small charge, not above one third of what we are at, for Ships of the same Burthen in England; and compelling their said Ships (being of small force) to sail always in Fleets, to which in all times of danger they allow Convoy.

  Sixthly, Their parsimonious and thrifty living, which is so extraordinary, that a Merchant of one hundred thousand pound estate with them, will scarce spend so much per annum, as one of fifteen hundred pounds Estate in London.

  Seventhly, The education of their Children, as well Daughters as Sons; all which, be they of never so great quality or estate, they always take care to bring up to write perfect good hands, and to have the full knowledge and use of Arithmetick and Merchants Accompts; the well understanding and practice whereof, doth strangely infuse into most that are the owners of that quality, of either Sex, not onely an ability for Commerce of all kinds, but a strong aptitude, love, and delight in it; and in regard the women are as knowing therein as the men, it doth incourage their Husban
ds to hold on in their Trades to their dying days, knowing the capacity of their Wives to get in their Estates, and carry on their Trades after their Deaths: Whereas if a Merchant in England arrive at any considerable Estate, he commonly withdraws his Estate from Trade, before he comes near the confines of old Age, reckoning that if God should call him out of the World, while the maine of his Estate is engaged abroad in Trade; he must lose one third of it, through the unexperience and unaptness of his Wife to such Affairs, and so it usually falls out.

  Besides, It hath been observed in the nature of Arithmetick, that like other parts of the Mathematicks, it doth not onely improve the Rational Faculties, but inclines those that are expert in it to thriftiness and good Husbandry, and prevents both Husbands and Wives in some measure from running out of their Estates, when they have it always ready in their Heads what their expences do amount to, and how soon by that course their mine must overtake them.

  Eighthly, The loweness of their Customs, and the heighth of their Excise, which is certainly the most equal and indifferent Tax in the World, and least prejudicial to any People, as might be made to appear, were it the subject of this discourse.

  Ninethly, The careful providing for, and employment of their Poor; which is easie to demonstrate can never be done in England comparatively to what it is with them, while it’s left to the care of every Parish to look after their own onely.

  Tenthly, Their use of BANKS, which are of so immence advantage to them, that some not without good grounds have estimated the profit of them to the Publick to amount to at least one million of pounds sterling per annum.

  Eleventhly, Their Toleration of different Opinions in matters of Religion: by reason whereof many industrious People of other Countreys, that dissent from the Established Government of their own Churches, resort to them with their Families and Estates, and after a few years cohabitation with them, become of the same Common interest.