World on Fire World on Fire World on Fire
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24. See “Chinese Vietnamese Work Hard for Big Success,” Saigon Times Daily, February 1, 2001; Leo Dana, “Mastering Management: Culture is of the Essence in Asia,” Financial Times, November 27, 2000; Steve Kirby, “Saigon’s Chinatown Bounces Back from Dark Years after 1975,” Agence France-Presse, April 28, 2000; and Gail Eisenstodt, “Caged Tiger,” Forbes, March 25, 1996, p. 64.
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25. My discussion of the Chinese in Thailand (and Southeast Asia more generally) draws on Gary G. Hamilton and Tony Waters, “Ethnicity and Capitalist Development: The Changing Role of the Chinese in Thailand,” and Linda Y. C. Lim and L. A. Peter Gosling, “Strengths and Weaknesses of Minority Status for Southeast Asian Chinese at a Time of Economic Growth and Liberalization,” both of which appear in Daniel Chirot and Anthony Reid, eds., Essential Outsiders: Chinese and Jews in the Modern Transformation of Southeast Asia and Central Europe (Seattle and London: University of Washington Press, 1997), the former at pp. 258–84, the latter at pp. 285–317. The study of Thailand’s largest business groups was conducted by Suehiro Akira. See his book Capital Accumulation in Thailand, 1855–1985 (Japan: Centre for East Asian Cultural Studies, 1989).
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26. See Sumit Ganguly, “Ethnic Politics and Political Quiescence in Malaysia and Singapore,” pp. 233–72, in Michael Brown and Sumit Ganguly, eds., Government Policies and Ethnic Relations in Asia and the Pacific (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1997); Lim and Gosling, “Strengths and Weaknesses of Minority Status for Southeast Asian Chinese at a Time of Economic Growth and Liberalization,” pp. 285–317; and “Empires without Umpires,” in Asian Business Survey, The Economist, April 7, 2001, pp. 4–5.
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27. On Robert Kuok’s economic empire, see “Empires without Umpires,” pp. 4–5, and http://www.forbes.com/2002/02/28/billionaires.html.
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28. On the concentration of land in the Philippines—the most inequitable in Asia—see Mark Mitchell, “This Land is Your Land,” Far Eastern Economic Review, March 29, 2001, p. 27. On the increase in the economic prominence of the Filipino Chinese during the 1980s and 1990s, see Lim and Gosling, “Strengths and Weaknesses of Minority Status for Southeast Asian Chinese at a Time of Economic Growth and Liberalization,” pp. 285–317; Rigoberto Tiglao, “Gung-ho in Manila,” Far Eastern Economic Review, February 15, 1990, pp. 68–72; and Wilson Lee Flores, “The Top Billionaires in the Philippines,” Philippine Star, May 16, 2001, pp. BL1–3.
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29. On the growing economic role of the Chinese in Cambodia and Laos, see Dan Eaton, “China, Vietnam, play out old rivalry in Cambodian visits,” Agence France-Presse, November 12, 2000, and Dana, “Mastering Management,” p. 12.
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30. The World Bank, Globalization, Growth and Poverty: Building an Inclusive World Economy (New York: The World Bank and Oxford University Press, 2002), chapter 1.
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31. Clifford Geertz’s description of Mojokerto’s bean curd industry can be found on pp. 66–70 of Peddlers and Princes.
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32. On Indonesia’s struggling tofu industry today, see Dan Murphy, “The IMF and the Economics of Jakarta Tofu,” Christian Science Monitor, May 10, 2001, p. 8; “Indonesia’s Soybean Imports Still High,” Jakarta Post, July 23, 2001, p. 10; and “Tempeh Makers Left Without a Bean,” Jakarta Post, August 21, 1998.
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33. The story of the phenomenal rise of the CP Group is based primarily on the group’s website as well as on Hamilton and Waters, “Ethnicity and Capitalist Development: The Changing Role of the Chinese in Thailand,” pp. 275–77, and Carl Goldstein, “Full Speed Ahead,” Far Eastern Economic Review, October 21, 1993, pp. 66–68.
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34. Max Weber, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, Talcott Parsons, trans. (London and New York: Routledge, 1992) (1930).
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35. For additional reading from a variety of perspectives, see Francis Fukuyama, Trust: The Social Virtues and the Creation of Prosperity (New York: Free Press, 1995); Lawrence Harrison, Who Prospers? How Cultural Values Shape Economic and Political Success (New York: Basic Books, 1992); Joel Kotkin, Tribes: How Race, Religion, and Identity Determine Success in the New Global Economy (New York: Random House, 1993), pp. 165–200; and Thomas Sowell, Migrations and Cultures: A World View (New York: Basic Books, 1996).
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36. My discussion of the Chinese in Indonesia during the Suharto period draws heavily on Michael R. J. Vatikiotis, Indonesian Politics under Suharto (3d ed.) (London and New York: Routledge, 1993), and R. William Liddle, “Coercion, Co-optation, and the Management of Ethnic Relations in Indonesia,” pp. 273–319, in Michael Brown and Sumit Ganguly, eds., Government Policies and Ethnic Relations in Asia and the Pacific (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1997).
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37. The statistics regarding Chinese economic dominance are from Leo Suryadinata, “Indonesian Politics toward the Chinese Minority under the New Order,” Asian Survey 16 (1976): 770–87, and “A Taxing Dilemma,” Asiaweek, October 20, 1993, pp. 57–58. See also Michael Shari and Jonathan Moore, “The Plight of the Ethnic Chinese,” Business Week, August 3, 1998, p. 48.
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38. Michael Shari, “A Tycoon under Siege,” Business Week, September 28, 1998, p. 26. See also William Ascher, Why Governments Waste Natural Resources (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999), pp. 74–77.
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39. Vatikiotis, Indonesian Politics under Suharto, p. 14.
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40. On the recent forest fires in Indonesia, see Alan Khee-Jin Tan, “Forest Fires of Indonesia: State Responsibility and International Liability,” International and Comparative Law Quarterly 48 (1999): 826–55. See also Edward A. Gargan, “Lust for Teak Takes Grim Toll,” Newsday (New York), June 25, 2001, p. A7.
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41. Friedman, The Lexus and the Olive Tree, p. 13.
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42. Ravi Velloor, “Fix Chinese Issue, Indonesia Told,” Straits Times, October 10, 1998, p. 2. On the 1998 riots, see also Gregg Jones, “Fear Overwhelming Indonesia’s Chinese,” Dallas Morning News, October 4, 1998, p. 1A, and Shari, “A Tycoon under Siege,” p. 26.
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43. Margot Cohen, “Indonesia: Turning Point,” Far Eastern Economic Review, July 30, 1998, p. 12.
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44. The comparative economic statistics for Indonesia and Singapore are from The World Bank, World Development Report 2000/2001 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001).
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45. On Bengali economic dominance and anti-Bengali violence in Assam, India, see Donald L. Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict (Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press, 1985), pp. 112–13; Sanjoy Hazarika, “India’s Assam Cauldron Bubbles Dangerously Again,” New York Times, December 2, 1982, p. A2; and Ashutosh Varshney, “After the Assam Killings,” Christian Science Monitor, March 22, 1983, p. 27.
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46. Sowell, Migrations and Cultures, p. 28. See also Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict, pp. 155–56, 245–46, 616–17.
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47. On the “Pentagon gang,” see “Kidnap gang brings new terror to southern Philippines,” China Daily, August 23, 2001, available at http://www.chinadaily.net/news/2001–08–23/28651.html. On Burmese bear bile, see “Life on China’s Edge,” The Economist, September 14, 1996, p. 41.
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Chapter 2
1. As loosely translated and reported in “Talks with Farm Leader Break Down,” Press Association, October 2, 2000.
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2. Peter McFarren, “Bolivia Farmer Talks Break Down,” Associated Press, October 1, 2000.
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br /> 3. Paul Keller, “Natural-born Rebel with a Cause to Stir,” Financial Times, February 2, 2002, p. 2, and Clifford Krauss, “Bolivia Makes Key Concessions to Indians,” New York Times, October 7, 2000, p. A8.
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4. “Talks with Farm Leader Break Down.”
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5. For general discussions of Bolivia in English, see Maria L. Lagos, Autonomy and Power: The Dynamics of Class and Culture in Rural Bolivia (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1994); Waltraud Queiser Morales, Bolivia: Land of Struggle (Boulder and Oxford: Westview Press, 1992); and Robert Barton, A Short History of the Republic of Bolivia (La Paz and Cochabamba, Bolivia: Los Amigos del Libro, 1968).
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6. Manning Nash, “The Impact of Mid-Nineteenth Century Economic Change upon the Indians of Middle America,” pp. 170–83, in Magnus Mörner, ed., Race and Class in Latin America (New York and London: Columbia University Press, 1970).
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7. Tristán Marof, “La Tragedia del Altiplano,” Editorial Claridad (Buenos Aires, 1934). On the process of “encholamiento,” see Salvador Romero Pittari, “Las Claudinas,” Editorial Karaspas (La Paz, 1988).
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8. “Bolivia: Congress Passes Controversial Land-Reform Law,” IAC (SM) Newsletter Database (TM), Latin American Database, October 18, 1996.
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9. See Seymour Martin Lipset, “Values and Entrepreneurship in the Americas,” pp. 77–140, in Revolution and Counterrevolution: Change and Persistence in Social Structures (rev. ed.) (New Brunswick and Oxford: Transaction Books, 1988), especially pp. 84–87; Frederick B. Pike, Chile and the United States, 1880–1962 (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1963), pp. 280–87; and Jaime Vicens Vives, “The Decline of Spain in the Seventeenth Century,” pp. 121–95, in Carlo M. Cipolla, ed., The Economic Decline of Empires (London: Methuen, 1970). The term “gentleman’s complex” is usually attributed to the Brazilian sociologist Gilberto Freyre.
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10. “Patience Runs Out in Bolivia,” The Economist, April 21, 2001; Clifford Krauss, “Bolivia Falls Short,” New York Times, July 12, 1998, p. 3.
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11. William Finnegan, “Leasing the Rain,” The New Yorker, April 8, 2002, pp. 43–53; Krauss, “Bolivia Falls Short,” p. 3; and “Don’t Run My Stop Signs,” Newsweek, May 4, 1998, p. 64 (interview with Bolivia’s former vice president Jorge Quiroga Ramirez). See also http://www.converge.org.nz/1ac/articles/news990801a.htm.
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12. Magnus Mörner, Race Mixture in the History of Latin America (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1967), pp. 22, 24.
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13. This list was compiled by Magnus Mörner in Ibid., p. 58. My discussion of pigmentocracy draws heavily on Mörner, especially Ibid., pp. 1–2, 21–27, and pp. 53–68.
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14. Ibid., p. 13.
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15. See Ibid., pp. 43, 60, 99, 140–41; Magnus Mörner, The Andean Past (New York: Columbia University Press, 1985), p. 181; and David Bushnell and Neill Macaulay, The Emergence of Latin America in the Nineteenth Century (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988), p. 5.
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16. See “The right not to be Hispanic,” The Economist, March 7, 1998, p. 88, and Enrique Krauze, “The new nativism,” World Press Review, June 1998, p. 47. See also James F. Smith, “Mexico’s Forgotten Find Cause for New Hope,” Los Angeles Times, February 23, 2001, p. A1; Ginger Thompson, “Mexican Rebel Chief Says the Fight is Now for Peace,” New York Times, January 30, 2001, p. A3; and Kevin Sullivan, “Chiapas Indians Pin Hopes on Fox,” Washington Post, December 5, 2000, p. A34.
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17. See Joel Millman, “Mexico’s Clubby Corporate World Gets Jolt from U.S. over Insider Trading,” Wall Street Journal, May 14, 2001, p. A16.
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18. Anthony DePalma, “Going Private: A Special Report,” New York Times, October 27, 1993, p. A1.
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19. See Jonathan Kandell, “Yo Quiero Todo Bell,” Wired Magazine, January 2001, available at http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/9.01/slim_pr.html.
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20. My discussion of Carlos Slim draws heavily on Ibid.; Andrea Mandell Campbell, “Carlos Slim, El Hombre Mas Rico de America Latina,” Financial Times, July 16, 2000; and David Luhnow, “It’s Going to be Fine,” Wall Street Journal Europe, February 8, 2001, p. 24. On Telmex’s postprivatization improvements, see Elliot Blair Smith, “Mexico Struggles with Networks,” USA Today, June 26, 2001, p. 14E.
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21. Jared Diamond, Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies (New York and London: W. W. Norton & Company, 1999), pp. 68, 70–73. There is a voluminous interdisciplinary literature on the Spanish Conquest and subjugation of Latin America’s indigenous populations. In addition to Jared Diamond, my discussion draws principally on John Hemming, The Conquest of the Incas (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1970); Mörner, The Andean Past, pp. 30–48; Mörner, Race Mixture in the History of Latin America, pp. 23–25; and Nash, “The Impact of Mid-Nineteenth Century Economic Change upon the Indians of Middle America,” pp. 170–83.
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22. As reported in Mörner, The Andean Past, p. 34.
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23. Ibid., pp. 35–37. For discussions of the encomienda system, see Marvin Harris, Patterns of Race in the Americas (New York: Walker and Company, 1964), pp. 18–24, and Mörner, The Andean Past, p. 38.
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24. See Nash, “The Impact of Mid-Nineteenth Century Economic Change upon the Indians of Middle America,” pp. 173–74. See also Harris, Patterns of Race in the Americas, p. 22.
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25. See Lipset, “Values and Entrepreneurship in the Americas,” p. 85.
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26. See Jeff Silverstein, “Mexico on the Brink of a New Revolution,” San Francisco Chronicle, November 27, 1991, p. A8; Sally Bowen, “Peru set to sweep away 27-year-old ‘land reform’ laws,” Financial Times, July 18, 1995, p. 29; and Linda Diebel, “Women harvest the grapes of NAFTA,” Toronto Star, May 27, 1995, p. A18.
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27. See Nancy Scheper-Hughes, Death without Weeping: The Violence of Everyday Life in Brazil (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1992), which includes on pp. 152–57 a discussion of the disturbing studies of the Zona da Mata cane workers conducted by Nelson Chaves and his disciples. Chaves’s quote can be found at Ibid., p. 153. See also the vivid accounts in Linda Diebel, “Bittersweet sugar plantations dominate northeastern Brazil,” Toronto Star, December 6, 1998, p. B1, and John Vidal, “The Long March Home,” Guardian (London), April 26, 1997, p. T14.
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28. Lipset, “Values and Entrepreneurship in the Americas,” pp. 107–9. See also Magnus Mörner (with Harold Sims), Adventurers and Proletarians: The Story of Migrants in Latin America (UNESCO, Paris: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1985); Raymond Vernon, The Dilemma of Mexico’s Development (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1965), chapter 6; and W. Paul Strassman, “The Industrialist,” pp. 161–85, in John J. Johnson, ed., Continuity and Change in Latin America (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1964).
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29. Judith Laikin Elkin, The Jews of Latin America (rev. ed.) (New York and London: Holmes & Meier, 1998), pp. 131, 136.
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30. See Ibid., pp. 80, 145–46. See also Henrique Rattner, “Economic and Social Mobility of Jews in Brazil,” pp. 187–200, in Judith Laikin Elkin and Gilbert W. Merkx, eds., The Jewish Presence in Latin America (Boston: Allen & Unwin, 1987). For discussions of the prominent role played by Jews in Panama’s commercial sectors, see Jon Mitchell, “The Panama Free Zone: Paradise for would-be millionaires,” April 28, 1998, available a
t http://www.foreignwire.com/cf2.html, and Michele Labrut, “Picking Up the Pieces in Panama,” Jerusalem Report, November 15, 1990, p. 35.
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31. On Argentina’s Jewish community see Haim Avni, Argentina and the Jews, Gila Brand, trans. (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1991). On the Elsztain family, see Clifford Krauss, “This Year in Argentina, Two Brothers Build an Empire,” New York Times, April 14, 1998, p. D1.
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32. See Rex A. Hudson, “Country Study & Country Guide for Uruguay,” June 4, 1992, available at http://www.1upinfo.com/country-guide-study/uruguay/uruguay11. html.
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33. On the late-nineteenth- and early-twentieth-century waves of mass immigration from Europe to Argentina, Chile, and Uruguay, see Mörner, Race Mixture in the History of Latin America, especially pp. 133–34, and Mörner and Sims, Adventurers and Proletarians, chapters 3 and 4.
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34. Pike, Chile and the United States, 1880–1962, pp. 289–93.
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35. See Anthony W. Marx, “Contested Citizenship: The Dynamics of Racial Identity and Social Movements,” pp. 177–82, in Charles Tilly, ed., International Review of Social History: Citizenship, Identity, and Social History (Supplement 3) (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), and Charles H. Wood and Jose A. M. Carvalho, The Demography of Inequality in Brazil (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), chapter 6. See also David L. Marcus, “Melting Pot Coming to a Boil,” Dallas Morning News, January 16, 1994, p. 1A.
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36. See Eugene Robinson, Coal to Cream: A Black Man’s Journey Beyond Color To an Affirmation of Race (New York: Free Press, 1999). Robinson’s encounter with Vilma is described on pp. 10–14. See also pp. 11, 32. On the racial inequity Robinson encounters, see especially chapters 7 and 8. Scholarly treatments of race and racism in Brazil include France Winddance Twine, Racism in a Racial Democracy: The Maintenance of White Supremacy in Brazil (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1998), and Wood and Carvalho, The Demography of Inequality in Brazil, chapter 6.