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transportation, 85–86
wholesalers, 84–85
See also markets
propaganda
anti-American, 56, 57–58
anti-South Korean, 56, 58–59, 60–61
See also North Korea (Kim Il Sung era); North Korea (Kim Jong Il era)
property rights
and Land Reform Law, 6, 7, 240–41
of women, 25
public distribution system (PDS)
advantages of, 124–25
collapse of, 78–79, 88–89, 108, 125
creation of, 35
and currency reform, 129
food prices under, 120, 121–22, 125
recent revival, 108, 121–22
Pueblo seizure, 30–31
Pugachev (ship), 1
purges of 1950s. See Great Purge
Pyongyang, N.K.
as capital of North Korea, xi, 9
and currency reform, 129–30
fiction of “one Korea,” 95
grain rationing, 35
housing, 143–44
and Korean War, 142–43
Mansu Hill statue, 33–34, 48, 51, 143
March 1st Uprising of 1919, 52
money transfers from Japan, 24
new rich in, 91–92
reconstruction, 142–43, 144
restaurants, 91–92, 189
riots, 107–08
as Soviet headquarters, 2
travel permits for, 38, 89, 113
Qaddafi, Muammar, 149, 210
Radio Free Asia, 226
Radio Free Europe, 226
radios
in North Korea, 39, 43–44, 89, 217, 225, 226
opening of N.K. through, 190, 225, 226
and Polish democracy movement, 226
in post-Stalinist Russia, 43–44
Rajin-Sonbong Special Economic Zone, 111
Rason, N.K., 92, 170–71
Republic of Korea (ROK). See South Korea (ROK)
restaurant industry, 85, 91–92, 93, 189
retail industry, 85
Revolutionary Party of Unification, 29
Rhee, Syngman, 8, 10, 27, 63
rice. See grain; public distribution system (PDS)
Rim, Hwawon, 80–82
riots
Chongjin, 123
Pyongyang, 107–08
Ri, Sol Ju, 56, 140
Rodong Shinmun (newspaper), 18, 99–102
Roehrig, Terence, 111
Roh, Moo Hyun, 163, 173, 174, 221
Romania, 194
Russia, Maritime Provinces, 181
Ryugyong Hotel, 144
sŏngbun system, 41–42, 84
salaries. See employment
Sartre, Jean-Paul, 17
Scandinavia, 20–21
Schulte, Gregory, 146
“Second Korean War,” 28–29
Seoul National University, 161, 246
Seoul, S.K
fiction of “one Korea,” 95
as North Korean capital, 9
Olympic games, 32, 222
post-war, 3
proximity to DMZ, 205
as South Korea capital, 9
“7.1 measures” (July 1 measures), 111, 119–20
Shtykov, Terentii, 7
Sino-Soviet split, 16–20, 28, 76
Sintsova, Katya (fictional character), 80–82
Sinuiju, N.K., 171–72
Six-Party talks, 155, 157, 200, 255–56
Smith, Jeffrey, 151
smuggling
across Chinese border, 86, 92
alcohol, 20, 21
drugs, 21, 86, 87, 112
Somalia, 196–97
Song, Du-yul, 30
Song, Hye-rim, 55
South Africa, 250
South Korea (ROK)
agriculture, 69, 78
April Revolution, 27
creation of, 2, 9
as developmental dictatorship, 109–10
diplomatic relations with U.S., 157, 158
education, 58, 97, 99, 158
employment, 98
foreign aid to N.K., 151, 152, 154, 156, 164–65, 172, 174–75
generational shift (“386 generation”), 158–62, 163, 174
kidnappings by N.K., 22
Kim Dae Jung administration, 162–63, 164, 174
Korean War. See Korean War
Lee Myung Bak administration, 173–74, 175, 176
Leftists, 8, 29–30, 105–06, 159–60, 162–63, 174
mass opposition movements, 27
North Korean propaganda, 56, 58–59, 60–61
North Korean refugees, 7–8, 95–99, 102–03, 230–31
nuclear weapons program, 147–48, 182
passenger jet bombing, 32, 205
post-WWII Communist movement, 3
prosperity, 43, 103–05, 109–10, 112, 158, 214, 215
Pyongyang as early capital, 9
reforestation program, 28
remittances to North Korea, 97
Right-leaning politics, 8, 158, 162, 173, 174, 221
Roh Moo Hyun administration, 163, 173, 174, 221
sinking of Cheonan, 179
Sunshine Policy, 163–65, 172, 173, 221
Syngman Rhee regime, 8, 10, 27, 63
territory dispute with China, 181, 201
trade with China, 182
“Vision 3000” plan, 174–75
welfare system, 97
See also economy of South Korea; Seoul, S.K.; unification
South Vietnam, 28, 113
See also Vietnam War
Soviet Union
agitprop, 214
Cold War, 3, 75
collapse of, 75, 114, 149, 213–14, 241
Communism, 6, 16, 18
currency reform of 1947, 126
domestic travel, 38
during World War II, 3–4
economy, 76
exchange students, 44, 217–18
facade of success in 1950s, 9
famine in 1930s, 9
farm collectives, 9, 36–37
foreign aid for North Korea, xiii, 19–20, 73–74, 75, 76, 77
gender equality, 24–25
and Korean War, 11–12
and Mikhail Gorbachev, 75, 193, 218
Non-Proliferation Treaty with North Korea, 148, 151, 154, 181
nuclear weapons program, 10, 147, 148
Politburo, 7
political persecution, 46, 47
post-Stalin changes, 16, 68
radios, 43–44
relations with China, 11, 20, 76
relations with United States, 75, 76
“second society” in, 228–29
Sino-Soviet split, 16–20, 28, 76
takeover of North Korea, 2–3
trade, 73, 76, 88
See also North Korea (Kim Il Sung era/1948-1994)
special economic zones (SEZ), 170–72
Stalin, Joseph, 4, 6, 10, 50
See also Soviet Union
state enterprise. See employment
Straub, David, 184
Sunshine Policy, 163–65, 172, 173, 221
Sweden, 21
Syria, 147
Taedong River, 143
Taiwan, 109–10, 113
Thailand, 95
Tokyo Shimbun, 116, 135
trade
with China, 87, 182
and foreign currency earning enterprises, 87–88
with Soviet Union, 73, 76, 88
Trade Union organization, 40
transportation
industry, 85–86
infrastructure, 77, 85–86
travel
to China, 90–91, 123
in Kim Il Sung era, 37–38, 89
in Kim Jong Il era, 90–91, 93, 113
permit system, 37–38, 89, 113
post-unification, 244
to Pyongyang, 38, 89, 113
trials. See political persecution
Tunisia, 194, 207
unification
>
Chinese views of, 181
early struggles over, 9–10, 27–32
education system, 246
employment concerns, 237–40, 245, 246
financial vulnerabilities, 241–42
Germany as precedent, 160, 163, 234
and Kim-era elite, 247, 248–50
and Kim family, 251
Kim Il Sung’s support for, 27–28
and Land Reform Law, 240–41, 244–45
military issues, 71–72, 242, 245
mitigating negative consequences, 243–51
North-South Joint Communiqué, 31
politics under, 246–48
possible future scenarios, 195–96, 234–35, 237–42
potential benefits, 235
potential costs, 160, 162, 235–37, 246
provisional confederation period, 243–46
real estate, 240–41, 244–45
refugee issues in, 99
Second Korean War, 28–29
Sunshine Policy, 163–65
support by South Korean Left, 29–30, 160
waning South Korean interest in, 158, 160–62, 163, 198, 237
United Nations, 200
United States
academic exchanges, 217–18
anti-American propaganda, 56, 57–58
Cold War, 3, 75
diplomatic relations with North Korea, 146, 151–52, 154–55, 176–77, 210–12
diplomatic relations with South Korea, 148, 157, 158
foreign aid to North Korea, 151–52, 155, 157, 164, 172
journalists held by North Korea, 176–77
Korean War, 11–12
Patriot Act, 154
on Soviet takeover of Korea, 2, 3, 10
“strategic patience” strategy, 177, 210–12
UN Security Council, 156, 176
uranium enrichment program, 153–54, 179
Vietnam
Communism, 75, 110
as developmental dictatorship, 110
economic growth, 110
economic reforms, 75, 110, 112–13
famine, 110
farm collectives, 37
partition, 28
See also South Vietnam; Vietnam War
Vietnam War, 28
Vinen, Richard, 114
“Vision 3000” plan, 174–75
Voice of America, 44, 226
wages. See employment
Walesa, Lech, 226
Wen, Jiabao, 176
West Germany
Eastern bloc refugees, 96
per capita income, 160
and unification, 160, 163, 234
West, Loraine, 79
women
clothing restrictions, 90, 223
in Communist party, 24–26
concubinage, 25
employment opportunities, 24–26, 37, 83–84
and marriage, 26, 37, 40, 83
in private enterprise, 83–84
property rights, 25
and Women’s Union, 40
Women’s Union, 40
Wonsan, N.K., 1–2
World Cup, 107–08
World Food Program (WFP), 153
World Health Organization, 64
Yakovlev, Alexandr, 218
Yalu River hydropower, 69
Yang, Bin, 171, 172
Yeongpyeong Island, 179
Yim, Kyong-hun, 120
Yi, Sŭng-yŏp, 14
Yi, Yŏng-guk, 91
Yongbyon, N.K., 147, 253
Yonsei University, 246
The birth of the regime: Kim Il Sung and General Ivan Chistiakov, 1947 (Russian State Archive of Film and Photo Documents, 0-216988)
Voting on the first North Korean elections, 1947 (Russian State Archive of Film and Photo Documents, 0-216991)
North Korea in the late 1940s: portrait of young Kim Il Sung, above the slogan, “Long live the liberator of small nations Generalissimo Stalin!” (Russian State Archive of Film and Photo Documents, 0-216883)
A US air raid, Pyongyang, 1950 (Russian State Archive of Film and Photo Documents, 0-232460)
Ruins of Sinuiju, 1951 (Russian State Archive of Film and Photo Documents, 1-7677)
Pyongyang street in 1985 (Photo by Sergei Kurbanov, author’s collection)
Pyongyang street in 2005 (Photo by author)
Anti-American poster on Pyongyang street (Moravius)
Street vendors on Ongnyu Bridge, Pyongyang (Moravius)
At a bus stop (Moravius)
Building an apartment bloc in Pyongyang (Moravius)
Anglers at Wonsan pier (Moravius)
Construction works at the countryside (Moravius)
Oxcart, the major means of transportation in the countryside (Moravius)
Pyongyang outskirts in winter (Moravius)
Well-tended private plots near Nampo (Moravius)
Roadside market—Chongdan County (Moravius)
Road construction works (Moravius)