92. William Bentley, The Diary of William Bentley, D.D: Pastor of East Church, Salem, Massachusetts (Gloucester, MA, 1962), 3: 313.
93. Malone, Jefferson the President: Second Term, 613.
94. James Duncan Phillips, “Jefferson’s ‘Wicked Tyrannical Embargo,’” New England Quarterly, 18 (1945), 466–78; American Register, 3 (1808), 450–52.
95. Samuel E. Morison, Maritime History of Massachusetts, 1783–1860 (Boston, 1921), 189; Douglas North, “The United States Balance of Payments, 1790–1860,” Trends in the American Economy in the Nineteenth Century, National Bureau of Economic Research, Studies in Income and Wealth, 24 (Princeton, 1960), 590–92.
96. Adam Rothman, Slave Country: American Expansion and the Origins of the Deep South (Cambridge, MA, 2005), 54.
97. Gallatin to TJ, 29 July 1808, in Adams, ed., Writings of Gallatin, 1: 399.
98. Jerry L. Mashaw, “Reluctant Nationalists: Federal Administration and Administrative Law in the Republican Era, 1801–1829,” Yale Law Journal, 116 (2007), 1655.
99. Malone, Jefferson the President: Second Term, 639; TJ to Lehre, 8 Nov. 1808, in L and B, eds., Writings of Jefferson, 12: 191.
100. Malone, Jefferson the President: Second Term, 652.
101. James H. Broussard, The Southern Federalists, 1800–1816 (Baton Rouge, 1978), 107.
102. Malone, Jefferson the President: Second Term, 653, 654.
103. Malone, Jefferson the President: Second Term, 639; Annals of Congress, 10th Congress, 2nd session (Dec. 1808), 19: 276.
104. At least one modern econometrician agrees that the British experienced more economic suffering than the Americans did and that the embargo failed because of the lack of sufficient political will in America. Jeffrey A. Frankel, “The 1807–1809 Embargo Against Great Britain,” Journal of Economic History, 42 (1982), 291–308. See also Perkins, Prologue to War, 205.
105. Malone, Jefferson the President: Second Term, 644, 657; TJ to Monroe, 28 Jan. 1808, in Ford, ed., Writings of Jefferson, 9: 243; to Judge St. George Tucker, 25 Dec. 1808, in Malone, Jefferson the President: Second Term, 657.
1. Norman K. Risjord, The Old Republicans: Southern Conservatism in the Age of Jefferson (New York, 1965), 145 .
2. J.C.A. Stagg, Mr. Madison’s War: Politics, Diplomacy, and Warfare in the Early American Republic, 1783–1830 (Princeton, 1983), 3; Henry Adams, History of the United States of America During the Administration of James Madison (1889–1891; New York, 1986), 452 .
3. On the differing views of historians over the causes of the war, see Louis M. Hacker, “Western Land Hunger and the war of 1812,” Mississippi Valley Historical Review, 10 (1924), 366–95; Julius W. Pratt, Expansionists of 1812 (New York, 1925); George R. Taylor, “Agrarian Discontent in the Mississippi Valley Preceding the War of 1812,” Journal of Political Economy, 39 (1931), 471–505; Warren H. Goodman, “The Origins of the War of 1812: A Survey of Changing Interpretations,” Mississippi Valley Historical Review, 28 (1941–1942), 171–86; Reginald Horsman, The Causes of the War of 1812 (Philadelphia, 1962); and Bradford Perkins, ed., The Causes of the War of 1812: National Honor or National Interest? (New York, 1962).
4. On the votes for the war, see David S. Heidler and Jeanne T. Heidler, eds., Encyclopedia of the War of 1812 (Annapolis, 2004), 571–74; this Encyclopedia also has an extensive bibliography on the war. For some of the many articles dealing with the votes for the war, see Leland R. Johnson, “The Suspense Was Hell: The Senate Vote for War in 1812,” Indiana Magazine of History, 65 (1969), 247–67; Ronald I. Hatzenbuehler, “Party Unity and the Decision for War in the House of Representatives,” WMQ, 29 (1972), 367–90; Ronald I. Hatzenbuehler, “The War Hawks and the Question of Congressional Leadership in 1812,” Pacific Historical Review, 45 (1976), 1–22; Rudolph M. Bell, “Mr. Madison’s War and Long-Term Congressional Voting Behavior,” WMQ, 36 (1979), 373–95. On Pennsylvania, see Victor Sapio, Pennsylvania and the War of 1812 (Lexington, KY, 1970).
5. Irving Brant, James Madison: The President, 1809–1812 (Indianapolis, 1956), 37.
6. Catherine Allgor, A Perfect Union: Dolley Madison and the Creation of the American Nation (New York, 2006), 250.
7. Andrew S. Trees, The Founding Fathers and the Politics of Character (Princeton, 2004), 111; Ralph Ketcham, James Madison: A Biography (New York, 1970), 428.
8. Stagg, Mr. Madison’s War, 507.
9. Ketcham, Madison, 485.
10. Bradford Perkins, Prologue to War, 1805–1812: England and the United States (Berkeley, 1968), 218.
11. Annals of Congress, 11th Congress, 2nd session (April 1810), 21: 1772; Perkins, Prologue to War, 241; Risjord, Old Republicans, 107.
12. James H. Broussard, The Southern Federalists, 1800–1816 (Baton Rouge, 1978), 136.
13. Stagg, Mr. Madison’s War, 61.
14. Stagg, Mr. Madison’s War, 56.
15. JM to TJ, 15 June 1810, 22 June 1810, Republic of Letters, 1636–37.
16. Annals of Congress, 11th Congress, 2nd session (April 1810), 21: 1868.
17. Henry Adams, ed., Documents Relating to New England Federalism, 1800–1815 (Boston, 1877), 389.
18. Perkins, Prologue to War, 61.
19. Roger H. Brown, The Republic in Peril: 1812 (New York, 1964), 15; Felix Grundy, Annals of Congress, 12th Congress, 1st session (May 1812), 24: 1407–8.
20. Richard Buel Jr., America on the Brink: How the Political Struggle over the War of 1812 Almost Destroyed the Young Republic (New York, 2005), 92–97, 133–35, 151–53, 242.
21. Wilson Cary Nicholas to TJ, 4 Feb. 1810, Papers of Jefferson: Retirement Ser., 2: 195; James Monroe to John Taylor, 13 June 1812, in Stanislaus Murray Hamilton, ed., The Writings of James Monroe (New York, 1901), 5: 206.
22. Annals of Congress, 12th Congress, 1st session (May 1812), 24: 1410.
23. Steven Watts, The Republic Reborn: War and the Making of Liberal America, 1790–1820 (Baltimore, 1987), 63–107.
24. Niles’ Weekly Register, 1 (1811–1812), 252; Annals of Congress, 12th Congress, 1st session (Jan. 1812), 658; Watts, The Republic Reborn, 101.
25. Albert Gallatin to TJ, 10 March 1812, in Henry Adams, The Life of Henry Gallatin (New York, 1879), 455–56.
26. Risjord, Old Republicans, 109.
27. Risjord, Old Republicans, 102.
28. Annals of Congress, 11th Congress, 2nd session (April 1810) 21: 1864–1876, 1885.
29. Annals of Congress, 12th Congress, 1st session, (Feb. 1812), 23: 1027.
30. Annals of Congress, 12th Congress, 1st session, (Jan. 1812), 23: 824–833.
31. Risjord, Old Republicans, 127.
32. JM to TJ, 6 March 1812, Republic of Letters, 1688.
33. Stagg, Mr. Madison’s War, 160.
34. JM, War Message to Congress, 1 June 1812, Madison: Writings, 691.
35. Leonard D. White, The Jeffersonians: A Study in Administrative History (New York, 1951), 216.
36. Jon Latimer, 1812: War with America (Cambridge, MA, 2007), 56.
37. John Sugden, Tecumseh: A Life (New York, 1997).
38. Donald R. Hickey, The War of 1812: A Forgotten Conflict (Urbana, IL, 1989), 25.
39. Stagg, Mr. Madison’s War, 4.
40. Latimer, 1812, 42.
41. Walter R. Borneman, 1812: The War That Forged a Nation (New York, 2004), 57.
42. Hickey, War of 1812, 73.
43. Latimer, 1812, 71.
44. Latimer, 1812, 82–83.
45. Stagg, Mr. Madison’s War, 268.
46. Borneman, 1812, 84; Harry L. Coles, The War of 1812 (Chicago, 1965), 81.
47. In 1820 the forty-one-year-old Decatur was killed in a duel by James Barron, the disgraced captain of the Chesapeake, who had surrendered to a British warship in 1807. Hickey, War of 1812, 96; Robert J. Allison, Stephen Decatur: American Naval Hero, 1779–1820 (Amherst, MA, 2005), 115–19, 123–28, 200–211.
48. Hickey, War of 1812, 98.
49. Latimer, 1812, 88.
50. Hickey, War of 1812, 96–97; Coles, War of 1812
, 95–99; Latimer, 1812, 90; George C. Daughan, If by Sea: The Forging of the American Navy—From the Revolution to the War of 1812 (New York, 2008), 430.
51. Annals of Congress, 12th Congress, 2nd session (Dec. 1812), 25: 249.
52. Philadelphia Aurora, 30 Jan. 1812, in Hickey, War of 1812, 120.
53. Hickey, War of 1812, 122.
54. Latimer, 1812, 133.
55. Latimer, 1812, 195.
56. Coles, War of 1812, 129.
57. Latimer, 1812, 189.
58. Latimer, 1812, 220.
59. Borneman, 1812, 151; Latimer, 1812, 221.
60. Latimer, 1812, 369.
61. Stagg, Mr. Madison’s War, 362.
62. Latimer, 1812, 263, 130–31.
63. Coles, War of 1812, 167.
64. Donald R. Hickey, Don’t Give Up the Ship: Myths of the War of 1812 (Urbana, IL, 2006), 154.
65. Latimer, 1812, 320.
66. Latimer, 1812, 319.
67. Julia Anne Hieronymus Tevis, in Joyce Appleby, ed., Recollections of the Early Republic: Selected Autobiographies (Boston, 1997), 77.
68. JM to TJ, 17 Aug. 1812, to Richard Cutts, 8 Aug. 1812, Papers of Madison: Presidential Ser., 5: 165, 127.
69. On the clergy’s role during the war, not only in support of the Federalists but in support of the Republicans as well, see William Gribbon, The churches Militant: The War of 1812 and American Religion (New Haven, 1973).
70. For a severe indictment of the Federalists, see Buel, America on the Brink, 54–55, 117–18, 156–64, 169, 172, 192, 200, 209, 215, 220, 242.
71. Mathew Carey to JM, 1 Aug. 1812, 12 Aug. 1812, 21 Jan. 1813, 25 Jan. 1813; JM to Mathew Carey, 19 Sept. 1812, Papers of Madison: Presidential Ser., 5: 109–10, 148–49, 601–3, 614–18, 335, quotations at 601–2 and 335.
72. James M. Banner Jr., To the Hartford Convention: The Federalists and the Origins of Party Politics in Massachusetts, 1789–1815 (New York, 1970).
73. Theodore Dwight, History of the Harford Convention: With a Review of the Policy of the United States, Which Led to the War of 1812 (New York, 1833), 354, 355, 367, 368, 369–70. The convention’s “Report” is on pp. 352–379.
74. Merle Eugene Curti, The American Peace Crusade, 1815–1860 (1929; New York, 1965), 8–20.
75. Lambert, Barbary Wars, 194, 195.
76. Walter A. McDougall, Promised Land, Crusader State: The American Encounter with the World Since 1776 (Boston, 1997), 35.
77. Ketcham, Madison, 586.
78. Irving Brant, James Madison: Commander in Chief, 1812–1836 (Indianapolis, 1961), 329.
79. Ketcham, Madison, 586, 604.
80. Brant, Madison: Commander in Chief, 419, 407.
81. Forrest Church, So Help Me God: The Founding Fathers and the First Great Battle Over Church and State (New York, 2007), 350.
82. JA to TJ, 2 Feb. 1817, in Lester J. Cappon, ed., The Adams-Jefferson Letters: The Complete Correspondence Between Thomas Jefferson and Abigail and John Adams (Chapel Hill, 1959), 2: 508; Robert A. Rutland, The Presidency of James Madison (Lawrence, KS, 1990).
83. Watts, The Republic Reborn, 317.
84. Len Travers, Celebrating The Fourth: Independence Day and the Rites of Nationalism in the Early Republic (Amherst, MA, 1997), 205; Gallatin to Matthew Lyon, 7 May 1816, in Henry Adams, ed., The Writings of Albert Gallatin (Philadelphia, 1879), 1: 700.
85. TJ to Lafayette, 23 Nov. 1818, in Gilbert Chinard, ed., The Letters of Lafayette and Jefferson (Baltimore, 1929), 396.
1. Gaillard Hunt, As We Were: Life in America, 1814 (1914; new ed. Stockbridge, MA, 1993), 8–10.
2. Kenneth L. Sokoloff, “Inventive Activity in Early Industrial America: Evidence From Patent Records, 1790–1846,” Journal of Economic History, 48 (1988), 813–50; Barbara M. Tucker, Samuel Slater and the Origins of the American Textile Industry, 1790–1860 (Ithaca, 1984), 89.
3. J. M. Opal, Beyond the Farm: National Ambitions in Rural New England (Philadelphia, 2008), 157.
4. Claudia Goldin and Kenneth Sokoloff, “Women, Children, and Industrialization in the Early Republic: Evidence from the Manufacturing Censuses,” Journal of Economic History, 42 (1982), 745–46; Thomas C. Cochran, Frontiers of Change: Early Industrialism in America (New York, 1981), 57; Henry Wansey, Journal of an Excursion (1796; New York, 1969), 47, 101; James A. Henretta, “The War for Independence and American Economic Development,” in Ronald Hoffman et al., eds., The Economy of Early America: The Revolutionary Period, 1763–1790 (Charlottesville, 1988), 81, 80.
5. George Rogers Taylor, The Transportation Revolution, 1815–1860 (New York, 1962), 206–7.
6. Annals of Congress, 5th Congress, 3rd session (Jan. 1799), 9: 2650.
7. TJ to Benjamin Austin, 9 Jan. 1816, Jefferson: Writings, 1369–72.
8. James L. Huston, Securing the Fruits of Labor: the American Concepts of Wealth Distribution, 1765–1900 (Baton Rouge, 1998), 89.
9. Clay, 22 Jan. 1812, Annals of Congress, 12th Congress, 1st session, 23: 918.
10. Cathy Matson and Peter Onuf, “Toward a Republican Empire,” American Quarterly, 37 (1985), 496–531.
11. Calhoun Quoted in Oscar and Lillian Handlin, Liberty in Expansion, 1760–1850 (New York, 1989), 197; Niles’ Weekly Register, 1 (1811–1812), 282, 3; Mathew Carey (1822), quoted in Nathan Miller, The Enterprise of a Free People: Aspects of Economic Development in New York State During the Canal Period, 1792–1838 (Ithaca, 1962), 42.
12. John Crowley, This Sheba, Self: the Conceptualization of Economic Life in Eighteenth-Century America (Baltimore, 1974), 88, 97–99, 38–39; [William Smith], The Independent Reflector, ed. Milton M. Klein (Cambridge, MA, 1963), 106.
13. [Anon.], The Commercial Conduct of the United States of America Considered, and the True Interest Thereof, Attempted to be Shewn By a Citizen of the New York (New York, 1786), 4.
14. Montesquieu, Spirit of the Laws, ed. Franz Neumann (New York, 1949), I, bk. xx, ch. 13, p. 323; Niles’ Weekly Register, 6 (1814), 395.
15. Niles’ Weekly Register, 3 (1812), 328.
16. Dewitt Clinton, A Discourse Delivered Before the New-York Historical Society, at their Anniversary Meeting, 6th December 1811 (New York, 1814), 37.
17. BF, “Information to Those Who Would Remove to America” (1784), Franklin: Writings, 975–83.
18. John Sylvester John Gardiner, “The Scholar and Gentleman United” (1806), in Lewis P. Simpson, ed., The Federalist Literary Mind: Selections from the Monthly Anthology and Boston Review, 1803–1811 (Baton Rouge, 1962), 81.
19. Lawrence A. Cremin, American Education: The National Experience, 1783–1876 (New York, 1980), 2: 249–334; Donald G. Tewksbury, The Founding of American Colleges and Universities Before the Civil War, with Particular Reference to the Religious Influences Bearing upon the College Movement (New York, 1932), 55–132; Natalie A. Naylor, “The Ante-Bellum College Movement: A Reappraisal of Tewksbury’s Founding of American Colleges and Universities,” History of Education Quarterly, 13 (1973), 261–74; Opal, Beyond the Farm, 128, 127.
20. George Wilson Pierson, Tocqueville in America, abridged by Dudley C. Lunt (New York, 1959), 44.
21. Morris Birkbeck, Notes on a Journey in America, from the Coast of Virginia to the Territory of Illinois (London, 1819), 37, 108, 98; Cooper quoted in Edwin H. Cady, The Gentleman in America: A Literary Study in American Culture (Syracuse, 1949), 121.
22. Charles Jared Ingersoll, Inchiquin, the Jesuit’s Letters (1810), in Gordon S. Wood, ed., The Rising Glory of America, 1760–1820 (New York, 1971), 387.
23. Opal, Beyond the Farm, 175; Peter J. Coleman, Debtors and Creditors in America: Insolvency, Imprisonment for Debt and Bankruptcy, 1607–1900 (Madison, WI, 1974), 287–88; Scott A. Sandage, Born Losers: A History of Failure in America (Cambridge, MA, 2005), 7; Bruce H. Mann, Republic of Debtors: Bankruptcy in the Age of American Independence (Cambridge, MA, 2002), 36.
24. See James T. Lemon and Gary Nash, “The Distribution of Wealth in Eighteenth-Century America: A Centur
y of Change in Chester County, Pennsylvania, 1693–1802,” Journal of Social History, 2 (1968), 1–24; Allan Kulikoff, “The Progress of Inequality in Revolutionary Boston,” WMQ, 28 (1971), 375–412; Lee Soltow, “Economic Inequality in the United States in the Period from 1790 to 1860,” Journal of Economic History, 31 (1971), 822–839; Jackson Turner Main, “Trends in Wealth Concentration Before 1860,” ibid., 445–57.
25. John Melish, Travels Through the United States of America, in the Years 1806 and 1807, and 1809, 1810, and 1811 (London, 1815), 100, 48–49.
26. Rena L. Vassar, ed., “The Life or Biography of Silas Felton Written by Himself,” American Antiquarian Society, Proc ., 69 (1959), 120, 127–28, 129–30; Opal, Beyond the Farm, 137, 132–37, 147–48, 135.
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