New World, Inc.

by John Butman

  5 Susan Rose, Calais: An English Town in France 1347–1558 (Woodbridge: The Boydell Press, 2008), 39–53; Muriel St. Clare Byrne, ed., The Lisle Letters. An Abridgement. Selected and Arranged by Bridget Boland (London: Secker & Warburg, 1983), 30; David Grummitt, The Calais Garrison. War and Military Service in England, 1436–1558 (Woodbridge: The Boydell Press, 2008), 5–6; Paul Slack, rev., “Sir Andrew Judde (c. 1492–1558), merchant,” Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. For “Pale,” see the Oxford English Dictionary, definitions 4a, b, c and 5c.

  6 “Report of the Signr Giovanni Michele on his return from England A.D. 1557,” in Henry Ellis, ed., Original Letters Illustrative of English History, in Four Volumes: Volume II (London: Harding and Lepard, Second Series, 1827), 218–42; 226–27.

  7 “The Queen to the special gentlemen in every shire,” [January 7], 1558, in Calendar of State Papers, Domestic Series, of the Reigns of Edward VI., Mary, Elizabeth, 1547–1580, ed. Robert Lemon (London: Longman, Brown, Green, Longmans, & Roberts, 1856), vol. 12, #6, 97.

  8 H. S. Vere Hodge, Sir Andrew Judde (Tonbridge: Tonbridge School Shop, n.d.), 114–15.

  9 Machyn, Henry, The Diary of Henry Machyn, Citizen and Merchant-Taylor of London, 1550–1563, edited by J. G. Nichols (London: Camden Society, 1848), 163.

  10 Holinshed, Chronicles, 4:137.

  11 Wallace T. MacCaffrey, “The Newhaven Expedition, 1562–1563,” The Historical Journal 40, no. 1 (1997), 1–21; 15.

  12 Ibid., 9.

  13 G. D. Ramsay, The City of London in the International Politics at the Accession of Elizabeth Tudor (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1975), 58.

  14 R. F. Foster, Modern Ireland: 1600–1972 (London: Allen Lane, 1988; paperback edition, Penguin Books, 1989), 30.

  15 “Shane O’Neill to the Queen,” undated, in Calendar of State Papers relating to Ireland, of the Reigns of Henry VIII, Edward VI, Mary, and Elizabeth, 1509–1573, ed. Hans Claude Hamilton (London: Longman, Green, Longman & Roberts, 1860), vol. 1, #79, 158.

  16 “Proclamation shewing the presumptuous, arrogant, rebellious and traitorous deeds of Shane O’Neill, and denouncing him as a rebel and traitor,” 8 June 1561, in CSP-Ireland, 1509–1573, vol. 1, #1, 173.

  17 CSP-Ireland, 1509–1573, vol. 3, #59, 170 (£3,000); vol. 4, #22, 175 (“nothing hinders”); #39, 178 (released funds); #76, 183 (“ready to embark”).

  18 William G. Gosling, The Life of Sir Humphrey Gilbert: England’s First Empire Builder (London: Constable & Co., 1911), 38.

  19 “Proclamation by the Queen in favour of Shane O’Neill,” May 5, 1562, in CSP-Ireland, 1509–1573, vol. 6, #6, 194.

  20 Gosling, The Life of Sir Humphrey Gilbert, 38.

  21 Foster, Modern Ireland, 12.

  22 “Lord Deputy Sidney to the Earl of Leicester,” March 1, 1566, in CSP-Ireland, 1509–1573, vol. 16, #35, 289.

  23 “Lord Deputy Sidney to [William Cecil],” June 9, 1566, CSP-Ireland, 1509–1573, vol. 18, #9, 304.

  24 Tracy Borman, Elizabeth’s Women: The Hidden Story of the Virgin Queen (London: Vintage, 2009), 62.

  25 David Beers Quinn, ed., The Voyages and Colonising Enterprises of Sir Humphrey Gilbert, 2 vols. (London: The Hakluyt Society, 1940), 1:2.

  26 Ibid., 1:3–4.

  27 “[1565]. Petition from Humphrey Gilbert to the Queen,” in Quinn, Voyages and Colonising Enterprises, 1:105–6. Quinn says the petition was “most probably the autumn of 1565,” although it could have been submitted between June 1565 and March 1566.

  28 “A Discourse of a Discoverie for a new passage to Cataia,” in Quinn, Voyages and Colonising Enterprises, 1:129–64. Date of the original draft: 135.

  29 Humphrey Gilbert to Sir John Gilbert, 30 June 1566, in Quinn, Voyages and Colonising Enterprises, 1:134–35; 134.

  30 “[December 1566]. Petition from Humphrey Gilbert to the Queen,” in Quinn, Voyages and Colonising Enterprises, 1:108–10; 109.

  31 “An Acte for the corporation of merchant Adventurers for the discovering of newe trades, made in the eight yeere of Queene Elizabeth. Anno 1566,” in Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 3:83–91.

  32 “[24 January 1567]. Humphrey Gilbert’s petition to the Queen, with comments of the Muscovy Company,” in Quinn, Voyages and Colonising Enterprises, 1:111–15; 113.

  33 Ibid., 1:111–12.

  34 Susan M. Lough, “Trade and Industry in Ireland in the Sixteenth Century,” Journal of Political Economy 24, no. 7 (1916): 713–30; 721.

  35 Nicholas P. Canny, The Elizabethan Conquest of Ireland: A Pattern Established, 1565–1576 (Hassocks: The Harvester Press, 1976), 70–72.

  36 Sir Thomas Smith to Sir William Cecil, 7 November 1565, cited in Mary Dewar, Sir Thomas Smith: A Tudor Intellectual in Office (London: The Athlone Press, 1964), 157.

  37 “Queen Elizabeth to the Lord Deputy,” July 6, 1567, in CSP-Ireland, 1509–1573, vol. 21, #49, 340–41.

  38 Christopher Maginn, “Shane O’Neill (c.1530–1567), chieftain,” in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online; Canny, The Elizabethan Conquest of Ireland, 59–60.

  39 Quinn, Voyages and Colonising Enterprises, 1:13–16.

  40 “12 February 1569. Petition to Sir Henry Sidney,” in Quinn, Voyages and Colonising Enterprises, 2:490–493. Though the authorship is not stated, Quinn notes that the petition “is written in a hand which is very likely to be Gilbert’s.”

  41 “[March 1569]. Petition to the Privy Council,” in Quinn, Voyages and Colonising Enterprises, 2:293–94; 293.

  42 Canny, The Elizabethan Conquest of Ireland, 79.

  43 Between September 29, 1558, and September 29, 1574, some £370,779 was paid out of the Exchequer for Ireland. See: “Money paid for Ireland,” [September 29], 1574, Calendar of State Papers relating to Ireland, of the Reign of Elizabeth, 1574–1585, ed. Hans Claude Hamilton (London: Longmans, Green, Reader & Dyer, 1867), vol. 47, #68, 38.

  44 Brigden, New Worlds, Lost Worlds, 254.

  45 Rory Rapple, “Sir Humphrey Gilbert (1537–1583), explorer and soldier,” in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography; “H. Gylberte to the Lord Deputy,” December 6, 1569, in CSP-Ireland, 1509–1573, vol. 29, #83, 424; Rory Rapple, Martial Power and Elizabethan Political Culture: Military Men in England and Ireland, 1558–1594 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 211.

  46 Thomas Churchyard, Churchyarde’s Choice, in Canny, The Elizabethan Conquest of Ireland, 122.

  47 “H. Gylberte to the Lord Deputy,” December 6, 1569, in CSP-Ireland, 1509–1573, vol. 29, #83, 424.

  48 J. R. Tanner, Tudor Constitutional Documents A.D. 1485–1603, with an Historical Commentary (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1951), 143–46.

  49 Geoffrey Parker, Imprudent King: A New Life of Philip II (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2014; paperback ed., 2015), 206–7.

  50 David Beers Quinn, “Sir Thomas Smith (1513–1577) and the Beginnings of English Colonial Theory,” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 89, no. 4 (1945): 543–60, 548.

  51 Ibid., 551.

  52 Sir Thomas Smith, “A letter sent by I.B. Gentleman vnto his very frende Maystet [sic] R. C. Esquire vvherin is conteined a large discourse of the peopling & inhabiting the cuntrie called the Ardes, and other adiacent in the north of Ireland, and taken in hand by Sir Thomas Smith one of the Queenes Maiesties priuie Counsel, and Thomas Smith Esquire, his sonne” (London: Henry Binneman, 1571), n.p. The quotes in the following four paragraphs are taken from this pamphlet.

  53 Quinn, “Sir Thomas Smith,” 556.

  54 Sir William Fitzwilliam to Thomas Smith, junior, February 1572, cited in Hiram Morgan, “The Colonial Venture of Sir Thomas Smith in Ulster, 1571–1575,” The Historical Journal 28, no. 2 (1985): 261–78; 265.

  55 “Thomas Smith to Burghley,” September 10, 1572, in CSP-Ireland, 1509–1573, vol. 27, #54, 482.

  56 “Earl of Essex to the Privy Council,” October 20, 1573, in CSP-Ireland, 1509–1573, vol. 42, #55, 525.

  57 Steven Ellis, Tudor Ireland: Crown, C
ommunity and the Conflict of Cultures, 1470–1603 (London: Longman, 1985), 266–68; 267.

  58 Robert Dunlop, “Sixteenth Century Schemes for the Plantation of Ulster, Part II,” The Scottish Historical Review 22, no. 86 (1925): 115–26; 124.

  59 “Orders set out by Sir Thomas Smyth knight…,” December 1, 1573. See Dewar, Sir Thomas Smith, 165. These have been redated to 1573—from 1574. The original documents relating to Smith’s colonisation are housed in the Essex Record Office.

  60 “Offices necessarie in the Colony of Ardes and orders agreed vppon,” December 20, 1573. See Dewar, Sir Thomas Smith, 166.

  61 “Deeds of covenant between Sir Thomas Smith, knight, and Sir John Barckley, of Berverstone Castle, Gloucestershire, knight,” December 8, 1573. See Dewar, Sir Thomas Smith, 168.

  62 “Earl of Essex to the Privy Council,” December 11, 1573, in CSP-Ireland, 1509–1573, vol. 43, #11, 532; “Earl of Essex to the Queen,” November 2, 1573, in CSP-Ireland, 1509–1573, vol. 42, #64, 526.

  63 “Sum of payments for the Earl of Essex’s affairs,” April 1575, in CSP-Ireland, 1574–1585 (London: Longmans, Green, Reader, & Dyer, 1867), vol. 50, #84, 62.

  64 “Declaration of the revenue of Ireland,” [October 26], 1575, in CSP-Ireland, 1574–1585, vol. 53, #55, 82.

  65 “[The Queen] to the Earl of Essex,” May [22], 1575, in CSP-Ireland, 1574–1585, vol. 51, #39, 66.

  66 “Grant by George Smith of Mount Hall, esquire, and John and William, his sons, to Anthony Morley of Lewes, Sussex, esquire,” April 16, 1580: Essex Record Office, Smyth Family (of Hill Hall Estate in Theydon Mount) Manuscripts: D/DSh O1/10.

  6. THE LAST GREAT CHALLENGE OF THE AGE

  1 Stow, A Survey of London, 1:131–32: “Muscovy Court,” in G. H. Gater and Walter H. Godfrey, eds., Survey of London: Volume 15, All Hallows, Barking-By-The-Tower, Pt II (London: London City Council, 1934), 4–6.

  2 Richard Collinson, The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher: In Search of a Passage to Cathaia and India by the North-West A.D. 1576–8 (1867; reprint, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 89.

  3 Ibid.

  4 Ibid.

  5 T. S. Willan, The Muscovy Merchants of 1555 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1953), 78; 98.

  6 “The first voyage made by Master William Towerson Marchant of London, to the coast of Guinea, with two Ships, in the yeere 1555,” in Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 6:177–211; 201.

  7 Brian Dietz, ed., The Port and Trade of Early Elizabethan London Documents (London: London Record Society, 1972), 43–44; 49.

  8 R. C. D. Baldwin, “Stephen Borough (1525–1584), explorer and naval administrator,” in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.

  9 Collinson, The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 87; J. B. Heath, ed., An account of the materials furnished for the use of Queen Anne Boleyn and the Princess Elizabeth, by William Loke, the King’s Mercer, Volume VII (London: Philobiblon Society, 1862–3), 10, 13: James McDermott, “Michael Lok, Mercer and Merchant Adventurer,” in Thomas Symons, ed., Meta Incognita: A Discourse of Discovery. Martin Frobisher’s Arcitice Expeditions, 1576–1578. 2 vols. (Hull, Quebec: Canadian Museum of `civilization, 1999), 1:119–146.

  10 Collinson, The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 87.

  11 “List of the Queen’s Navy, 20 Feb 1559–1560,” Calendar of State Papers Foreign: Elizabeth, Volume II, 1559–1560, ed. Joseph Stevenson (London: Longman, Green, Longman, Roberts & Green, 1865), cxxviii–cxxix. The largest ship in the Queen’s navy of 34 vessels was the Mary Rose, at 600 tons.

  12 Collinson, The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 88.

  13 Willan, The Muscovy Merchants, 108–9.

  14 “The second voyage to Guinea set out by Sir George Barne, Sir John Yorke, Thomas Lok, Anthonie Hickman and Edward Castelin, in the yeere 1554. The Captaine whereof was M. John Lok,” in Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 6:154–77.

  15 Willan, The Early History of the Russia Company, 287.

  16 “The 26 Januarye 1578. Michaell Lok Saluteth the Worshipfull Commyssioners and Auditors of his Accounts of the iij Voyages of C. Furbisher,” in Collinson, The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 332–343; 334.

  17 James McDermott, Martin Frobisher: Elizabethan Privateer (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2001), 7–12.

  18 [Michael Lok], “East India by the Northwest[ward],” in Collinson, Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 79–87; 80.

  19 J. G. Elzinga, “Sir John Yorke (d. 1569), administrator,” Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.

  20 [Lok], “East India by the Northwest[ward],” in Collinson, Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 80.

  21 “Declaration of Martin Frobisher,” in Joseph Stevenson, ed., Calendar of State Papers Foreign: Elizabeth, Volume 5, 1562 (London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1867), #102, 53.

  22 R. G. Marsden, “The Early Career of Martin Frobisher,” The English Historical Review 21, no. 83 (1906): 538–44; McDermott, Martin Frobisher: Elizabethan Privateer, 56–76.

  23 “Michaell Lok Saluteth the Worshipfull Commyssioners,” in Collinson, The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 334.

  24 Richard Willes, The History of Travayle in the West and East Indies, and other countreys lying eyther way, towards the fruitfull and tythe Moluccaes. As Moscouia, Persia, Arabia, Syria, AEgypte, Ethiopia, Guineas, China in Cathayo, and Giapan: With a discourse of the Northwest passage. Gathered in parte, and done into Englyshe by Richard Eden. Newly set in order, augmented, and finished by Richarde Willes (London: Richard Jugge, 1577), 233.

  25 George Best, A True Discourse of the Late Voyages of Discoverie for Finding of a Passage to Cathaya (London: Henry Bynnyman, 1578), in Collinson, Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 70. All the quotes in this and the next paragraph are taken from this page.

  26 Collinson, Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 89.

  27 Ibid., 89.

  28 Best, A True Discourse, in Collinson, The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 70–71; Simon Adams, “Ambrose Dudley, Earl of Warwick (c.1530–1590), magnate,” Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.

  29 G. C. Williamson, Lady Anne Clifford, Countess of Dorset, Pembroke & Montgomery, 1590–1676: Her Life, Letters and Work Extracted from all the original documents available, many of which are here printed for the first time (Kendal: Titus Wilson and Sons, 1922), 37; Simon Adams, “Anne Dudley [née Russell], countess of Warwick (1548/9–1604), courtier,” Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.

  30 “For M. Cap. Furbyshers Passage by the Northwest,” in Willes, History of Travayle, 230–36.

  31 “Michaell Lok Saluteth the Worshipfull Commyssioners,” in Collinson, The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 334.

  32 [Lok], “East India by the Northwest[ward],” in Collinson, The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 79.

  33 “Michaell Lok Saluteth the Worshipfull Commyssioners,” in Collinson, The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 334.

  34 “Accounts, with subsidiary documents, of Michael Lok, treasurer, of first, second and third voyages of Martin Frobisher to Cathay by the north-west passage”: The National Archives (Kew), E 164/35, fo. 2.

  35 Collinson, The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 89–90.

  36 Willan, The Muscovy Merchants, 81.

  37 Stow, Survey of London, 1:172–173; Philip Norman and W. D. Caroe, “The Architecture of Crosby Hall,” in Survey of London Monograph 9, Crosby Place (London: Guild & School of Handicraft, 1908), 57–63.

  38 Peter Ackroyd, The Life of Thomas More (London: Chatto & Windus, 1998), 234–35; Philip Norman and W. D. Caroe, “The History of Crosby Place,” in Survey of London Monograph 9, Crosby Place, 15–32.

  39 Ann Saunders, “The Building of the Exchange,” in Ann Saunders, ed., The Royal Exchange (London: London Topographical Society, Publication No. 152, 1997), 36–47.

  40 “Michaell Lok Saluteth the Worshipfull Commyssioners,” in Collinson, The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 335.

  41 T. S. Willan, Studies in Elizabethan Foreign Trade (1959; repr. M
anchester: Manchester University Press, 1968), 148.

  42 “Michaell Lok Saluteth the Worshipfull Commyssioners,” in Collinson, Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 335 (“took pains,” “received such money,” “take charge,” and “very little credit”); 336 (“merchant and purser” and “did satisfy”).

  43 Deborah E. Harkness, The Jewel House. Elizabethan London and the Scientific Revolution (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2007).

  44 Margaret Blatcher, “Chatham dockyard and a little-known shipwright, Matthew Baker (1530–1613),” Archaeologia Cantiana 107 (1989): 155–72; James McDermott, “Matthew Baker (1529/30–1613, shipwright,” Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.

  45 Nicholas Popper, “The English Polydaedali: How Gabriel Harvey Read Late Tudor London,” Journal of the History of Ideas 66, no. 3 (2005): 351–81; 380.

  46 James McDermott, “Humphrey Cole and the Frobisher Voyages,” in Silke Ackermann, ed., Humphrey Cole: Mint, Measurement and Maps in Elizabethan England (London: British Museum Press, Occasional Paper No. 126, 1998), 15–19.

  47 N. A. M. Rodger, The Safeguard of the Sea: A Naval History of Britain 660–1649 (London: HarperCollins Publishers, 1997), 234–36.

  48 Dr. J. Hamel and John Studdy Leigh (trans.), Early English Voyages to Northern Russia; comprising the Voyages of John Tradescent the Elder, Sir Hugh Willoughby, Richard Chancellor, Nelson, and Others (London: Richard Bentley, 1857), 24.

  49 Sir James Watt, “The Medical Record of the Frobisher Voyages of 1576, 1577 and 1578,” in Symons, ed., Meta Incognita 2:607–32; 613.

  50 Ibid., 610–12.

  51 Collinson, The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 90. Lok mentions “Stephen” Borough rather than “William” Borough. But this is probably an error, given Stephen’s earlier skepticism and William’s active involvement in the preparations.

  52 Ibid., 90. Also: “Michaell Lok Saluteth the Worshipfull Commyssioners,” in Collinson, The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 334.