The War that Ended Peace
Page 86
in Great War 597
imports and exports 202
involvement in Balkan crisis 451–58
loss of Empire xix, xx, 391
many nationalities in 13, 343
military expenditure 202, 212
and nationalism 165, 203, 209–11, 215–16, 232, 248–49, 476
naval building programme 128
Neutrality Treaty with Russia 227
Paris Universal Exposition 2–3
peace movement 275
‘Pig War’ 389
political parties 211
population 201, 210, 336, 431
and Redl’s treachery 336–37
relations with Britain 35, 75, 224–25, 392, 404
relations with France 145, 224
relations with Germany xxxi, 22, 197, 198, 200, 202–3, 214, 220, 222–24, 225, 334, 425
relations with Italy 199, 200, 214–15, 216, 222, 291, 332, 492–93
relations with Russia 214, 220, 224–27, 312, 315, 320, 382–83, 385, 397, 436, 446, 460, 492
relations with Serbia 388, 409
rivalry with Prussia 216
rivalry with Russia in the Balkans 471
rivalry with Russia over Ottoman Empire 381–82
Russia goes to war with xxiv, 146
and scramble for colonies 216
secret alliance with Rumania 386–87
strikes 202
struggle for survival xxii, xxvii, 471
threatens to destroy Serbia xxiv
in Triple Alliance xxix, 38, 45, 74, 78, 147, 187, 190, 196, 216, 221, 222, 312, 493
ultimatum to Montenegro 462
ultimatum to Serbia (1913) 464–65, 466
ultimatum to Serbia (1914) 531–32, 533, 540, 542, 544, 550–51, 561
Austrian Peace Society 267
Austrian Socialist Party 292
Austro-Hungarian army 208–9, 220, 402
A-Staffel 334
B-Staffel 334
conscription 275
German view of 331–32
honour 236
losses 596
Minimalgruppe Balkan 334
mobilisation 337, 338, 467, 531, 576, 584
and nationalist movements 257
pessimism of officer corps 234
reforms 332
size 335, 502
spending 335
values 303–4
Austro-Hungarian navy: Adriatic Fleet 461
Austro-Prussian War (Seven Weeks’ War) (1866) 5, 204, 207, 222
Avenger (a spy) 348
Azerbaijan 380
B
Baden, Grand Duke of 97
Baden-Powell, General Robert 258, 260
Scouting for Boys 242
Balck, Wilhelm 243
Balfour, Arthur 273
character 42
enthusiasm for Zionism 43
Salisbury’s nephew 42
wants to move away from isolation 136
Balkan armies 445
Balkan League 442, 444, 445, 446, 450, 453, 455, 457, 459, 462
Balkan wars (1912–13) xxiv, xxix, 215, 290, 291, 326, 341, 385, 431, 467, 471, 536, 555, 557, 605
armistice and peace talks 446
armistice signed to end First Balkan War 456, 457
Austria-Hungary’s involvement 451–58, 462, 478
Balkan army successes 445–46, 455
Balkan League’s string of quick victories 453
Balkan states 437–39
British and French concerns 446–47
creation of Balkan League 443–44
film footage of Second Balkan War 468
and increased military spending 502
investigation of 468
Kiderlen’s ‘bluff’ remark 545
national movements 439
Peace of Bucharest 462
Rasputin counsels the tsar against war 543
revolt of Albanian Muslims in Serbia 462–63
revolutionary activity 439–40, 441
Russian involvement 447–51, 478
Sazonov encourages Balkan states 449–50
Scutari issue 460–62
secret societies 440
Serbian victory in both wars 463, 514
treaties 443–44
Balkans 40, 196, 200, 216, 227
Balkan powers seize Ottoman territory (1912) 438, 442
Bosnia crisis P1.24
Common Ministerial Council discussions 463–65
emerging nations 385–86
German competition in 223
German investment and influence in 492
Italian ambitions in 222
map (1912–14) xvi–xvii
militarism P1.15
old order dead 453
Ottoman control 380
Ottoman territories in 381
rivalries between Italy and Austria-Hungary 332
rivalries between Russia and Austria-Hungary 187, 382–83, 385, 471
Serbia capitulates 465
Serbian and Montenegrin occupation of Albania 446
Balla, Giacomo 6, 230
Ballin, Albert 416, 427, 507, 556
Baltic 27, 117, 129, 181
Baltic Port (now Paldiski, Estonia) 494
Baltic states 180, 475
Balts 164
Bánffy, Miklós
They Were Divided 31
Transylvanian trilogy 32
Barcelona, Spain, bombing of the theatre 241
Barclay, Thomas 135, 142, 145
Baring, Sir Evelyn (later Lord Cromer) 42
Barings Bank 192
Bark, Peter 552
Battenberg, Louis 423
battleships
American 17, 18
battlecruisers 480
British 27, 48, 112, 113, 121, 123, 127, 128–29
Churchill moves ships to Gibraltar 499
cost of 108
dreadnoughts 101, 113, 114, 117, 118, 120, 121, 127, 128–29, 283, 373, 430, 493, 498, 525
Schichau works 124
Spithead naval review 27
as targets 88
Tirpitz’s First Navy Law 96
Tirpitz’s view 93
and Wilhelm II 61, 89
Bebel, August 286–87, 290, 421
Beck, General Friedrich von 333, 334
Beijing: Boxer Rebellion 47
Beilis, Mendel 475
Belgian army 329, 505, 586
Belgian Congo 421
Belgium 505, 569
and Congo 82
conscription 505
devastation of xix
and first Hague Peace Conference 281
German invasion 300, 302–3, 313, 336, 348–49, 350
neutrality xviii, 321, 323, 328, 345, 349, 505, 547, 556, 568, 580, 583–87, 589, 590, P1.20
resistance xviii, 564, 595
and second Hague Peace Conference 283–84
Belgrade, Serbia 437, 442, 457, 465, 532, 538
demonstrations in 401, 445, 522
socialist parties’ meeting (1910) 291
Bell, Alexander Graham 245
Belloc, Hilaire 265
Belvedere Palace, Vienna 214
Benckendorff, Count Alexander 182–83, 185, 194, 195, 259, 459
Berchtold, Count Leopold 511, 520, 521, 530
on Aehrenthal 384, 395
and Albania 460
ambassador to St Petersburg 391
Austria-Hungary’s foreign minister P1.32
background 451
and breaking off relations with Serbia 539
buried at Buchlau 602
character 452
and Conrad 220, 452, 457–58
criticism of 466
disapproves of Edward VII 452–53
favours destruction of Serbia P1.32
foreign policy views 453
Giesl instructed to break off diplomatic relations with Serbia 538
on Hartwig 410
in Italy 455
on Izvolsky 193, 402
on Lamsdorff 186
> refuses Conrad’s request to delay declaration of war on Serbia 539
resignation 602
and seizure of Bosnia-Herzegovina 397–98
supports increase in armaments 464
ultimatum to Serbia 534–38
Beresford, Admiral Charles 49
Bergson, Henri 239, 308
Berlin 559, P1.35
Avenue of Victory 71
Bourse 119, 427
business community 6
Berlin (cruiser) 411, 412
Berlin, Treaty of (1911) 427, 428, 429
Berlin-to-Baghdad railway 457, 494, 507
Bernhardi, General Friedrich von 236, 251
Germany and the Next War 247
Bernhardt, Sarah 1
Bertie, Sir Francis 114, 158, 253, 361, 363
Bethmann-Hollweg, Martha 527
Bethmann-Hollweg, Theobald von (Chancellor of Germany) 230, 256, 416, 435, 456, 522, 523, 569, 570, P1.34
addresses parliament 590
anxious to avoid war 478, 570
appearance 416
background 418
Bülow on 417–18
character 416–17
civil service 416
death 604
denies German responsibility for the war 603–4
and ending the naval race 406
fatalistic contemplation of the outbreak of war xxx, 505, 527
forced out of office 603
on Germany’s need for its place in the sun 252
harangues Goschen 590
hopes for British neutrality in the event of war 458, 526
on lack of a war council 323
marriage 418
opposes Tirpitz’s ship-building 430
and second Moroccan crisis 412, 419, 429
talks with Haldane 508, 509
on two-front war 323
views on foreign policy 419–20
Zabern incident 264
Beyens, Baron 60, 63, 92
Biliński, Leon von 466–67
Birmingham 43, 48
birth control 244
birth rate 244–45
Bismarck, Herbert von 79
Bismarck, Prince Otto von 222, 322, 333, 522, P1.10
anti-socialist laws 286
authoritarian and anti-liberal regime 275
and Bülow 76
and colonies 82
dismissed 52, 73, 137, 223
does not allow war to be forced upon him 529
on Edward VII’s attitude to the Kaiser 86
and France 137–38, 145, 146
and German political system 68
League of the Three Emperors 221
loses control of the Reichstag 69
pioneers the modern welfare state 9
relations with Wilhelm as crown prince 65
and socialist movement 69
and Tirpitz 97
tries to keep on good terms with other powers 74
and unification of Germany 2, 51–52, 52, P1.4
warns against alliance 196
Björkö agreement (1905) 189–91
Black Hand 439, 463
Black Sea, and Russia 38, 75, 181, 342, 394, 448
Blavatsky, Madame Helena 239, 325
Blenheim Palace 490
Bloch, Ivan (Jean de) 270–72, 281, 294, 305, 312, 594, P1.7
Bloody Sunday (22 January 1905) 167, 177, P1.12
Blucher, Prince 53
Board of Education (Britain) 250
Boer War, Second (1899–1902) 3, 23, 45–46, 50, 57, 61, 98, 103, 107, 108, 125, 135–36, 145, 150, 151, 225, 258, 306, 307, 310, 330, 359, 372, 471
Bohemia 210, 211, 213, 293
Bolsheviks 598, 602
attempt to seize Moscow 166, 167
cancellation of foreign debts 147
domination of unions 164
influence of 475
murder of Russian royal family 601, P1.11
power seized in Russia xx, 13
rigid and doctrinaire policies 13
workers’ seats in Duma 164
Bonnard, Pierre 229
Booth, Charles 107
Borodino, Battle of (1812) 250
Bosnia-Herzegovina 201, 516, 598
annexation of see under Bosnian crisis
Balkan League troops in 455
crises of 1911–13 220
Hungarian forces in 226
Paris Universal Exposition 2
plot to assassinate Franz Joseph 440
rebellions of 1870s 219
Bosnian crisis (1908–9)
Aehrenthal-Izvolsky discussions 393–94, 395–96, 602
Aehrenthal’s proposed railway 392–93
Austria-Hungary allowed to occupy and administer Bosnia-Herzegovina 382
Bosnia-Herzegovina annexation (1908) 226, 292, 326, 389–90, 392–97, 432, 440, 441, 541
Bulgaria 387–88
concerns over preparedness for war 406
emerging nations 385–86
Franz Ferdinand stops Conrad’s dash towards war 402–3
responses to the annexation 397–401
Rumania 386–87
Russia and Austria-Hungary’s agreement (1897) 382–83, 385, 393
Russia’s agreement not to oppose annexation 403–4
Russia’s continued meddling in the Balkans after the crisis 409–10
Serbia 388–91, 401, 404, 405–6, 536
status quo weakened by 1907 385
strengthens the Dual Alliance 408
Bosnian crisis (1908–9) xxiv, xxix, 120, 126, 197, 219, 236, 414, 471, 519, 605, P1.24
Boulanger, General Georges 139, 141, 262
Bourdon, Georges 254, 258
Bournville model town 277
Boxer Rebellion (1897–1901) 46–47, 49, 64, 81, 161–62, 182, 433
Boy Scouts 260, 272
Boys and Church Lads Brigade 260
Braque, Georges 165, 230
Brest naval base 135, 364
Britain
1906 election 107
Anglo-Japanese Alliance 48–50
competes with Germany 34, 59, 129
control of Egypt 35, 131, 149, 151, 157
declares war on Germany 590–91
defence spending 107–8
dispute with Venezuela 17, 37, 41–42
emigration 233
enters the war against Germany xviii, xxv
ethnic nationalism xxvii
family values 245
Fashoda stand-off 131, 134
fear of a single power dominating Europe xxvii, 116
fears as a declining nation xxi
and the first Hague Peace Conference 280
first Opium War 14
growth of British society 165
growth rates 12–13
imperial over-stretch 37
imports and exports 105, 269–70
industries being overtaken 37–38, 55
intervention in conflicts 54
irritates other European powers 54
isolation 36, 44, 114, 136
looks for allies 23–24
Mahan’s theories 88–89
militarism 260
offers Germany Portugal’s African colonies 507
Paris Universal Exposition 4
patriotism in education 250
peace movement 274, 275
population 67
prefers to be detached from the Continent 23
relations with Austria-Hungary 35, 75, 224–25, 392, 404
relations with France xxix, 4, 37, 38, 40, 44, 51, 75, 79, 101, 103, 113, 125, 129, 130, 134–36, 145, 148, 152, 252, 283, 321, 355, 356, 361, 376, 471
relations with Germany 35, 44–45, 47, 50, 51–59, 52, 75, 78, 79, 83–84, 99, 103–4, 113, 114–15, 120, 122, 124, 129, 130, 151, 158, 252, 253, 312, 315, 321, 367, 375, 423, 436, 458, 479, 492
relations with Italy 35, 75, 145, 332
relations with Ottoman Empire 38, 39
relations with Russia xxix, 37, 44, 75, 78–79, 10
1, 113, 129, 146, 181–88, 225, 227, 321, 423, 471, 477
relations with United States 129, 372
and second Hague Peace Conference 283
and second Moroccan crisis 423
secure and prosperous in 1900 13
similarities between German and English peoples 52–53
social programmes spending 108
stratified society 234
strikes in 107, 412, 424, 473, 599
taxation 108, 128
Treitschke attacks 83–84
Triple Entente 150, 196, 198, 312, 493
ultimatum to Germany 589–90
unpopularity over Boer War 23
British army
defence budget 107
drill and field manoeuvres 329–30
lack of a conscript army 107
losses 595
nationalism 249–50
poor physical condition of recruits 243–44
reforms 108
and sharing information 303, 371
size of 38, 212, 296, 359
Staff College 303
talks with French army 371, 375, 426, 428, 500, 554
transport 299
British Empire 181, 471
and Chamberlain 44
and defeat in a maritime war 105–6
defence of 104, 182
and Diamond Jubilee 26
growth of 37, 50
the Kaiser’s threat 568
lack of alliances 23
lack of conflict within 273
as a mixed blessing 37
and naval superiority 507–8
Russia as a rival 182
size of 54, 55
weakness of 48
‘White’ dominions 15, 114, 599
British Expeditionary Force 373–76, 426, 447, 546, 579, 594, 595, P1.35
British Guiana (now Guyana) 17, 41
British Staff College, Camberley 593–94
Brooke, Rupert 265
Broqueville, Baron Charles de 586
Brunswick, Duke of 469
Brusilov, General Aleksei 340, 472, 505
Brussels, Belgium 581
Bryan, William Jennings 276, 509
‘The Prince of Peace’ lecture 276
Buccleuch, Duke of 128
Buchanan, Sir George 551, 552
Bucharest, Peace of (1913) 462
Bucharest, Rumania 386, 437
Buchlau meeting (1908) 395, 396, 398, 402, 533, 602
Buckingham Palace Conference (1913) 492
Buckingham Palace Conference (1914) 543–44, 556
Budapest, Hungary 206
banking centre 201
Congress of Nationalities (1895) 209
fencing schools 235
Ottoman control 380
parliament buildings 208
population 7
Bulgaria 199, 225–26, 227, 293, 380, 382, 386, 437, 440
agreement with Montenegro 444
attacks Serbia and Greece 462
Austria-Hungary offers loans 448
customs arrangement with Serbia 388
Eastern Rumelia 387
in Great War 597
independence 379, 381, 387, 396, 397, 404, 409
and Macedonia 444