retirement 603
state visit to Russia 530, 544, 547–50, 551
succeeds Caillaux 483
on support of Russia 446
telegram sent after being told of ultimatum 553–54
thrilled at response on return to Paris 565
told of Franz Ferdinand’s death 511
visits to Scandinavian countries 554, 559
Poincaré, President Raymond P1.17
Poland 146, 180, 184, 200, 207, 293, 295
Poles 2, 164, 339, 343, 475, 476, 598
Polignac, Prince de 32
politics
changing nature of 248
in the Dual Monarchy 202
and extension of the franchise 28–29
German internal politics 73
Germany at the centre of European politics 52
in Hungary 207, 208
Jaurès’ belief 288
and landed interests 32
left-wing parties 473
nationalist 275
as a new social science 14
Russian internal politics 192
and upper classes 224–25, 234
and a widening franchise 28–29
and the younger generation 210
Pollio, Alberto 332, 524
poor, the
appalling conditions of 107
and food shortages 106
and People’s Budget 128–29
Port Arthur, China (now Lushun) 46, 161, 162
Port Said, Egypt 25
Portsmouth 89, 100, 364
Portsmouth, Treaty of (1905) 163
Portsmouth navy yard, New Hampshire 162
Portugal
British agreement with Germany over Portugal’s colonies 45, 56
Paris Universal Exposition 1
strikes in 412
Portuguese Empire 45, 507
positivism 14, 20, 237, 239
Post Office 110
Potemkin (Russian battleship), mutiny onboard (1905) 167
Potiorek, General Oskar 466, 516, 518, 520
Potsdam 71, 329, 419, 479, 494
Pourtalès, Count Friedrich von 568, 569–70, 580–81
Preobrazhensky Guards 168, 171
prices
agricultural 232–33, 234
bread 108
food 11
land 234
rising 412
wheat 202
Princip, Gavrilo 514, 516, 518, P1.29 601
progress
evidence of progress before the Great War 12
faith in 15, 20, 268
France at ‘vanguard’ of 22
and peace 19
progressive movement 275
Progressive Party (Germany) 275
Protestants 53, 175, 316, 375, 543
Proust, Marcel 230, 235, 239
In Remembrance of Times Past 240
Prussia
at the heart of a greater Germany 73
conscription 296
Junker families 69
Ministry of Education 73
Ministry of War 322
population 69
Prussian character 69, 254
rivalry with Austria-Hungary 216
Schleswig-Holstein seized 86, 147
territory 69
Tirpitz’s love of 90
treatment of Polish minority 223
unites the German states 51
Prussian army 91, 103, 256, 295, 297
Prussian court 65
Prussian navy 91
Prussianism 115, 254
Psichari, Ernest: Call to Arms 265
public opinion
and Anglo-German relations 59, 158
and atrocities in Ottoman Empire 39
on Austro-Hungarian and German relations 222
Belgian 586
British 422, 560, 584
and dispute between Bülow and Chamberlain 48
and Dogger Bank incident 159–60
and Entente Cordiale 155
and foreign affairs 9, 35, 192
French 135, 151, 349, 422, 429, 482
German 99, 126, 415, 421, 430, 479–80, 521
Grey appeals to 364
growing importance of 35, 58, 312–13
hostile to Serbia 454
influence on political decisions 102
Italian 433
nationalist 129
and naval race 124, 128, 130
as a new and unpredictable factor 9
pressures on Europe’s leaders 102
and rights of Italian speakers in Austria-Hungary 492–93
Russian 174, 178, 192, 257, 423, 567
and shoring up British interests around the globe 44
and Tangier visit 356
and Tirpitz 96
volatility 58
war favoured in Bulgaria 464
Puerto Rico, US control of 16, 17, 40
Pushkin, Alexander 180
Q
Quai d’Orsay, Paris 143, 149, 155, 348, 363, 364, 414, 415, 422, 544
Quaker Friends for Peace 274
Quakers 276, 277
Quidde, Ludwig 71
R
racialists 245, 249
radicals 108, 142, 144, 202, 224, 345–46, 406, 439, 474, 498
radios 102
railways 9–10, 12, 40, 46, 49, 83, 102, 146, 161, 162, 167, 171, 172, 181–84, 194, 201, 207, 237, 271, 284, 296–99, 327, 331, 335– 38, 341, 344, 348, 373, 378, 390, 392–93, 394, 404, 415, 419, 423, 431, 448, 486, 504, 525, 530, 547, 554
Raisuli, El (Moroccan bandit) 354, 358
Rangoon, Burma (Myanmar) 25
Rasputin, Grigori 164, 173, 176, 341, 474, 542–43, 545, 601
Rathenau, Walther 60–61, 247, 419
Zur Kritik der Zeit 237
Red Cross xxi
Redl, Colonel Alfred 235, 336–37, 342
Redlich, Josef 519
Redmond, John 543, 588
Reichstag, Germany
consequences of passing First Navy Law 97–98
described 68
growing deficits attacked 118
Italian invasion of Libya 434
lack of enthusiasm for a bigger navy 90
polarised 417
second Moroccan crisis 429
Reinach, Joseph 144
Reinsurance Treaty 74, 79, 137, 146, 147, 226
religion
fall in church attendances 239
Nicholas II’s religious beliefs 172
Orthodox 172, 175, 226, 249, 380, 382, 389, 439, 465
Protestants 53, 175, 316, 375, 490, 491, 543
rise of militant religions xxii
in Russia 165, 275
Theosophy 239, 325
Tsarina’s conversion 175
Rennes, France 143, 145
Reval meeting (now Tallinn, Estonia) (1907) 394
Revolutions of 1848 179, 204, 207
Rheims Cathedral, France xix
Rhine river 96, 298, 348
Rhineland 348
Rhodes 434
Rhodesian Horse 26
Richmond, Duke of 544
Riezler, Kurt 252, 523, 526–27
right, the
blames the left or Jews for the war xxx
nationalist 570
in Russia 475
wants a professional army 346
Rilke, Rainer Maria 229
Ritchie, C.T. 108
Roberts, Lord, of Kandahar 258, 260
A Nation in Arms 260
Rodin, Auguste 229, 235, 540
Rolland, Romain 277, 287
Roman Empire xxiii, 53, 242, 245
Romanov family 4, 172, 173, 474
Roosevelt, Theodore 84, 267, 275, 593
becomes President 18
on Bryan 276
character 17–18
critics of 17
fascinated by ships and the sea 18
and growth of US Navy 18
and the Kaiser 86, 195
and Mahan’s theories 88–89
Nobel Peace Prize 163
Open Door policy 356
and Perdicaris kidnap 358
second Hague Peace Conference 282, 283
Rosebery, Lord 82,158, 366
Rothschild family 32
Rouvier, Maurice 361, 362, 363–64
Royal Commission on food supply in time of war 106
Royal Dragoons 56
Royal Navy (Great Britain) 262, 296, 359
and Anglo-Japanese Alliance 50
battle stations 569
blockade tactic 94, 330
Britain’s lifeline to the wider world 104
Britain’s shield 104
Caribbean Fleet 17
and co-operation with French navy 364
conditions 111
Eastern Fleet 112
education 111
financing of 114, 400, 423
Fisher’s reforms 109
fleet at Algeciras 368
German navy not ready to take it on 329
global commitments 38
Grey supports a large navy 366–67
largest in the world 35, 94
Mediterranean Fleet 135, 499
Mobilisation 569
naval budget 99, 107, 127, 498, 503
Naval Reserve Fleet 112
need to disperse fleet around the world 93
protection of British trade 105
redestribution of 112
reforms 108
reliance on 38
and sharing information 303
standing for British power 28, 104
talks with French navy 371
told to remain mobilised after summer manoeuvres 557
two-power standard 94, 104
unsolicited advice from the Kaiser 61, 84
Wilhelm II’s admiration for 89
Royal Yacht Club 85
Rozhdestvensky, Admiral 160
Rudolf, Crown Prince of Austria 206, 213
Rumania 199, 201, 224, 225–26, 333, 335, 380, 386–87, 437, 505
and Bulgaria 506
in Great War 597
independence 381
national movement 209, 215
population 437
response to Serbia’s plea for support 537
secret alliances with Austria-Hungary and Germany 386, 387, 505, 521
and Triple Alliance 575
Rumanian army 502
Rumanian National Party 477
Rus, Ukraine 180
Russia 293
agrees not to oppose annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina 403–4, 405, 528
alliance with France (from 1894) xxvi, xxix, 22, 137, 145–48, 149, 158, 162, 175, 185–86, 192, 318, 356, 370, 400, 485–86, 496, 497, 524, 546, 547, 548, 561–62
the arts 165
and the Black Sea 38, 75
Bolsheviks seize power xx, 13
and Boxer Rebellion 161–62
breaks off relations with Germany 580
budget deficits 184
claim to be a European power 179, 180
colonies 12
constitution 177, 178, 553
Council of Ministers 173, 178, 403, 550, 552, 553
defence spending 502
divided society 163–64
dramatic rise to world power 12
Dreikaiserbund 137
Durnovo’s warning 311
economy 12, 13, 146, 168, 183, 201
education 8, 183
ethnic nationalism xxvii
exports 181, 381
fails to back Serbia xxiv
financial aid 177, 370
and first Hague Peace Conference 281
geography 179–81, 338
and German tariff to keep out cheap Russian grain 99
goes to war with Austria-Hungary and Germany xxiv
Great Programme 502–3
growth rates 12–13
industrialisation 55, 164, 172
internal migration 165
investment in 146–47
literacy 165
loans to 146, 191–92, 199, 337, 341, 480, 486, 547
need to rebuild and overhaul armed forces 168
Neutrality Treaty with Austria-Hungary 227
Paris Universal Exposition 4, 12
peace movement 275
political parties 178
population 67, 166, 180, 338, 480
pre-war desire for revenge xxi, xxiv
press 178, 191, 472
public opinion 174, 178, 192
rearmament xxvii
Redl’s treachery 336–37
Reinsurance Treaty with Germany 74, 79, 137, 146
relations with Austria-Hungary 214, 220, 224–27, 312, 315, 320, 382–83, 385, 397, 436, 446, 460, 492
relations with Britain xxix, 37, 44, 75, 78–79, 101, 113, 129, 146, 181–83, 225, 227, 321, 423, 471, 477
relations with France 38, 224, 283, 362
relations with Germany 75–76, 79, 152, 184–85, 312, 357–58, 407–8, 419, 471, 494, 495
relations with Serbia 410
religion 165, 226
response to Serbia’s plea for support 537
rivalry with Austria-Hungary in the Balkans 471
rivalry with Austria-Hungary over Ottoman Empire 381–82
and Ruthenia 215–16
secret military agreement with France (1894) 74
seizes Chinese ports 46
serfdom ends (1861) 165
size of 180, 331, 337
strikes in 164, 167, 202, 475, 541, 542, 548
subject peoples 164
supports Serbia xxiv, 512
terrorism in 241
Triple Entente 150, 196, 198, 312, 493
tsarist autocracy and orthodoxy 147
youth groups in 258
Russian army
conscription 480
German view of 331
‘Great Programme’ 480
mobilisation 339, 454–55, 504, 552, 553, 565–69, 573, 575, 584
reforms 339
and second Moroccan crisis 422–23
size of 480, 504
spending on 183, 212
view of the political class 257
Russian civil war 598
Russian Empire
demonstrations against Russian rule (1906) 167
devastation of xix, xx
spread of 40, 160, 180
Russian navy 94, 113, 191
Baltic Fleet 159–60, 162, 186, 552
Black Sea Fleet 167, 342, 552
Dogger Bank incident 159–60, 281
Far Eastern Fleet 162
Japan’s victory at Tsushima Strait 112
Pacific Fleet 162
shattered after Russo-Japanese War 168
spending on 183
Russian Orthodox Church 601
Russian revolution (1905) 13, 161, 167–68
Russian revolution (1917) 13, 161, 167, 475
Russification 249, 475
Russo-Japanese War (1904–5) xxvi, 13, 112, 118, 159–63, 161, 166, 168, 172, 174, 177, 179, 183–4, 186–89, 218, 227, 257, 259, 282, 298, 304, 306, 307, 331, 340, 342, 351, 356, 358, 362, 363, 368, 369, 383, 385, 392, 393, 408, 458, 471, 475, 476, 507, 546, P1.12
Russo-Turkish War (1877–8) 5, 267, 306, 340, 382
Ruthenia, Galicia 215–16
Ruthenians 476, 492
S
Sadowa, Battle of (1896) 431
St Cyr military academy 135, 349
St Petersburg 164, 226, 457, 461, 544, 548, 559
Winter Palace 167
Saint Saëns, Camille: Le Feu céleste 6
St Vincent (ship) 84
Sakhalin 163
Salisbury, Georgina Gascoyne-Cecil, Marchioness of 30–31, 42
Salisbury, Robert Cecil, 1st Earl of 31
Salisbury, Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of 49, 103, 108, 182, 247, 326
appearance 30
Caernarvon speech 35, 36
c
alm self-confidence 28
childhood 29
decision-making 33
depression 29, 42
and Diamond Jubilee 26
and Dreyfus affair 145
family background 31
family life 29
and Fashoda crisis 135
foreign policy 33–36, 38, 39, 41–42
at Hatfield 29–30
on imperialism 252
and Ito 49, 50
on jingoism 255
and the Kaiser 56–57, 85
and Kruger telegram 56
on leadership and the landed classes 29
living and dying nations speech 39–40, 98
marriage 30–31
opposes rise of new men 28–29, 43
penchant for secrecy 42
resignation 154
science experiments 30
and Triple Alliance 38
and United States 34, 41–42
Venezuela dispute 17, 41–42
Salonika (Thessaloniki) 446
Sammlungspolitik 78
Samoan islands 16, 45, 56, 58, 78, 252
San Giuliano, Antonino di 322–23, 434, 532, 560
Sanderson, Sir Thomas 37, 103, 114
Sanjak of Novi Bazar 382, 392, 393, 394, 396, 401, 409, 446, 454, 456, 465
Sarajevo, Bosnia 2
Archduke Franz Ferdinand assassinated see under Franz Ferdinand, Archduke
Saudi peninsula 493
Saxe-Coburgs 53
Saxe-Weimar, Grand Duke of 72
Sazonov, Sergei 181, 196, 442–43, 449–50, 451, 453, 455, 458, 461, 474, 486, 494, 495, 497, 506, 537, 538, 546, 549–53, 558, 561, 566, 567, 570, 580
Schemua, General Blasius 311, 454, 456, 457
Schleswig-Holstein, Prussian seizure of 86, 147
Schlieffen, Count Alfred von (chief of German general staff 1891–1905) 334, 369, 478, 596, P1.20
army career 317
background 316–17
character 317–18, 333
considers war in 1905 326
his legacy 325
retirement 323
revered as a great German general 323
sees no alternative to war 318
tries to take the uncertainty out of war 316
and the younger Moltke as his successor 324
Schlieffen Plan 199, 525, 564, 595, P1.20
early versions of 348
Falkenhayn on 324
flaws of 316
German mobilisation 321–22
lack of communication 322
mobilisation and movements of German forces in the event of war 315–16
modifed by the younger Moltke 316, 327, 327–28
offensive plan 327
plans to defeat France with a giant pincer movement around its armies 307, 319–20
retirement 360
two-front war 22, 318–19, 321
Schneider 22, 224, 389
Schoen, Wilhelm 64, 395, 588–89
Schoenberg, Arnold 230
Schönbrunn palace, Vienna 205, 208
School of Political Science (France) 414
Schratt, Katharina 206
science xxv, xxviii, 6, 232
The War that Ended Peace Page 91