The Two Koreas: A Contemporary History

by Oberdorfer, Don

  For the Gorbachev quote on the situation in 1986, Mikhail Gorbachev interview, April 13, 1994. On North Korea as a privileged ally, Gorbachev, Erinnerungen. USSR weapons promises, Ha interview, February 15, 1995. For aid levels, see Han Yong Sup, “China’s Security Cooperation with North Korea: Retrospects and Prospects,” paper prepared for conference “Sino-Korean Relations and Their Policy Implications,” American Enterprise Institute and George Washington University, December 2–3, 1993, and additional details provided to me by Han. On Kim’s view of Gorbachev as a revisionist, Koh Young Whan interview, October 25, 1993.

  CHAPTER 7: THE BATTLE FOR DEMOCRACY IN SEOUL

  For excellent descriptions of the 1987 events, see Manwoo Lee, The Odyssey of Korean Democracy (Praeger, 1990); and Sang Joon Kim, “Characteristic Features of Korean Democratization,” Asian Perspective (Fall-Winter 1994).

  Chun’s Succession Struggle: Chun to Walker, Walker interview, February 18, 1995. Lee Soon Ja views, from my journal, February 1981, based on a conversation with the first lady while sitting next to her at the luncheon for Chun at the National Press Club. Regarding the Ilhae Foundation, see Don Oberdorfer, “Korean Conundrum,” WP, May 25, 1986. On the forced contributions, see Donald Kirk, Korean Dynasty (M. E. Sharpe, 1994), 273. The Shultz quote is from his memoir, Turmoil and Triumph (Scribner’s, 1993), 977–998. Shultz’s concerns were expressed to me in an interview, March 16, 1995.

  Chun pledge to Reagan, “Presidential Visit Meetings in Seoul,” Memorandum from Assistant Secretary of State Paul Wolfowitz to Secretary Shultz, November 19, 1983, Secret/Nodis (declassified 1995). Chun quote to Blue House reporters, KH, January 9, 1988. For the Seoul National University poll, Se Hee Yoo, “The International Context of U.S.-Korean Relations: Special Focus on the ‘Critical Views of the United States’ in Korea Since 1980,” in United States-Korea Relations (Institute of East Asian Studies, 1986).

  Shultz on Sigur speech, Gaston Sigur interview, September 16, 1993. On dominance of Korea story in the American press, Don Oberdorfer, “U.S. Policy Toward Korea in the 1987 Crisis Compared with Other Allies,” in Korea-US. Relations (Institute of East Asian Studies, 1988). US warning to Pyongyang, Michael Armacost telephone interview, August 9, 1993. Pyongyang reaction, “Pyongyang Maintains Cautious Posture Toward Situation in South,” FBIS Analysis Note (CIA, Foreign Broadcast Information Service, June 29, 1984).

  Reagan’s letter to Chun, dated June 17, 1989, in author’s possession. Dunlop on “stonewalling,” Dunlop inter view, January 12, 1994. Riot details are from John Burgess, “Seoul Says Crackdown ‘Inevitable,’” WP, June 19, 1987. On June 19 meeting and Chun’s previous statements to aides, Kim Sung Ik, Voice Testimony of Chun Doo Hwan (Chosun Ilbo, 1992), in Korean. Lilley’s presentation to Chun, Lilley interviews, June 8, 1993, and February 17, 1997. Chun on suspending the mobilization order, Kim Sung Ik, Voice Testimony. Chung Ho Yong on the military views, Chung interview, April 20, 1994.

  Roh Tae Woo’s recollection, Roh interview, October 21, 1993. Chun quote to Sigur, Sigur interview, September 16, 1993. Roh’s near apology for Kwangju, Hyun Hong Choo interview, October 17, 1995. Chun camp’s version of June 29 origins: “The Truth of the 6/29 Declaration,” Monthly Chosun (January 1992), in Korean. Lee Soon Ja’s declaration, “Wife Says Chun Is Real Architect of the June 29, 1987, Declaration,” KT, December 19, 1996.

  The Election of 1987: Chun’s doubts about Roh, Kim Yoon Hwan interview, October 18, 1993. Kim Young Sam’s age has been a source of consistent confusion. He told Blue House reporters his birth date was misregistered at his birthplace and was actually December 4 (on the lunar calendar), 1927. “Kim’s Birthday,” KT, January 24, 1996.

  Kim Young Sam’s mother’s death, Kim interview, April 14, 1995. Cholla’s disadvantages, Manwoo Lee, The Odyssey of Korean Democracy (Praeger, 1990), 49–51. Lee quote on electoral territoriality from Lee, Odyssey, 47.

  CHAPTER 8: THE GREAT OLYMPIC COMING-OUT PARTY

  The Coming of the Olympics: On Park Chung Hee’s instructions, Park Seh Jik, The Seoul Olympics (Bellew, 1991), 5. On Korea’s and Chung Ju Yung’s efforts, Mark Clifford, Troubled Tiger (M. E. Sharpe, 1994), 289. For a full account of Chung’s remarkable career, see Donald Kick, Korean Dynasty (M. E. Sharpe, 1994). Rodong Sinmun quote, Park, Seoul Olympics, 8. Hwang Jang Yop on political significance, his letter to Hermann Axen (secretary of SED Central Committee), June 19, 1985, SED Archives, in German. Shevardnadze quote from “About the Visits of Soviet Foreign Minister Eduard Shevardnadze to North Korea and the Mongolian People’s Republic,” January 28, 1986, SED Archives, Confidential, in Russian and German. Maretzki quotes from his cable to Berlin, May 11, 1987, SED Archives. North Korea “cornered” quote from Parks, Seoul Olympics, 20.

  The Bombing of KAL Flight 858: My account is based on Kim Hyun Hui interview, October 25, 1993; her memoir, The Tears of My Soul (William Morrow, 1993); a chapter in Eileen MacDonald’s Shoot the Women First (Random House, 1993); and Investigation Findings: Explosion of Korean Air Flight 858 (KOIS, January 1988). Kim’s “military order” quote, Kim interview, October 25, 1993.The Shevardnadze quote is from Shultz, Turmoil and Triumph, 981.

  The Rise of Nordpolitik: For Roh’s interview, Don Oberdorfer and Fred Hiatt, “S. Korean President Urges End to Isolation of North,” WP, July 2, 1988. On the early Nordpolitik policy making, see Park Chul Un, “Northern Policy Makes Progress Toward Unification,” KH, March 13, 1991. Kim’s July 1988 reaction, “Visit of an Official Military Delegation of the GDR to North Korea, Between July 19 and 13, 1988,” SED Archives.

  Kim Woo Choong in Hungary, from an unpublished manuscript furnished me by Daewoo in December 1994, “The Civilian Ambassador Kim Woo Choong”; Chong Bong Uk, “Ties with Budapest Result from Spadework,” KH, January 29, 1988; and interviews with several former Korean officials. Data on ROK-Hungarian economic deals from a confidential source. Bazhanova report from “North Korea and Seoul-Moscow Relations,” in Korea and Russia Toward the 21st Century (Sejong Institute, 1992), 334. On Soviet-ROK connections at the Olympics, see James F. Larson and Heung-Soo Park, Global Television and the Politics of the Seoul Olympics (Westview Press, 1993). For the booty the Russians took home, see the unpublished Daewoo manuscript, “The Civilian Ambassador Kim Woo Choong.”

  Washington Launches a Modest Initiative: State Department view, DOS cable, “ROK President Roh’s Visit: US Policy Re N. Korea,” October 25, 1988, Secret (declassified 1995). Sigur quote, Sigur interview, September 16, 1993. Clark quote, Clark interview, June 23, 1993. State cable on “staying in step,” DOS cable, “ROK President Roh’s Visit: U.S. Policy Re N. Korea,” October 25, 1988, Secret (declassified 1995).

  State Department instructions, DOS cable, “Policy/Regulation Changes Regarding North Korea: Informing Seoul, Tokyo, Moscow, and Beijing,” October 28, 1988, Confidential (declassified 1995). Burkhardt meetings, Burkhardt interview, September 28, 1993. See also B. C. Koh, “North Korea’s Policy Toward the United States,” in Foreign Relations of North Korea (Sejong Institute, 1994), a particularly helpful account of US–North Korean diplomacy prior to 1994.

  CHAPTER 9: MOSCOW SWITCHES SIDES

  My account of the Politburo meeting on November 10, 1988, including quotes, is from notes by Gorbachev aide Anatoly Chernyayev. Minister’s quote on the ROK as “most promising partner,” Eugene Bazhanov, “Soviet Policy Towards South Korea Under Gorbachev,” Korea and Russia Toward the 21st Century (Sejong Institute, 1992), 94n.

  The Roots of Change: Soviet news reports and journalists’ quotes from Yassen N. Zassoursky, “The XXIV Olympic Games in Seoul and Their Effect on the Soviet Media and the Soviet Public,” in Seoul Olympics and the Global Community (Seoul Olympics Memorial Association, 1992). Pravda quote from Park Seh Jik, The Seoul Olympics (Bellew, 1991), 175. Muscovites survey, Park, Seoul Olympics, 175. The “Welcoming Soviets” quote is from Bazhanov, “Soviet Policy,” 96.

  The North-South economic comparisons are from Kwang Eui Gak’s monumental study, Th
e Korean Economies (Clarendon Press, 1993). Soviet aid figures are found on 204. The subsidized trade figures are from an excellent account by Nicholas Eberstadt, Marc Rubin, and Albina Tretyakova, “The Collapse of Soviet and Russian Trade with the DPRK, 1989–1993,” Korean Journal of National Unification 4 (1995).The Soviet memorandum to the DPRK is quoted in Natalia Bazhanova, “North Korea and Seoul-Moscow Relations,” in Korea and Russia Toward the 21st Century, 332. For the ROK proposed loans, Kyungsoo Lho, “Seoul-Moscow Relations,” Asian Survey (December 1989): 1153.

  Shevardnadze’s visit to Pyongyang, personal impressions of Pyongyang from Pavel Palazchenko, My Years with Gorbachev and Shevardnadze (Pennsylvania State University Press, 1997), 111. For Shevardnadze’s report, “The Main Results of Eduard Shevardnadze’s Visit to Japan, the Philippines, and North Korea,” memorandum of February 2, 1989, SED Archives. Shevardnadze’s “I am a communist” quote, Bazhanova, “North Korea and Seoul-Moscow Relations,” 332–333.

  Gorbachev Meets Roh: The Gorbachev memoirs quote is from the German version, Erinnerungen (Siedler Verlag, 1995). Gorbachev on the process of change, Gorbachev interview, April 13, 1994. Roh on “smelling their intention,” Roh interview, July 22, 1993. Lifting of Soviet restrictions, Bazhanov, “Soviet Policy Towards South Korea Under Gorbachev,” 97. ROK industrialists in Moscow, Kim Hak Joon, “South Korea–Soviet Union Normalization Revisited,” prepared for the Conference on Northeast Asia and Russia, Sigur Center for East Asian Studies, March 17–18, 1994, 11. “Inventing new reasons” quote, Georgi Ostroumov interview, April 12, 1994.

  Chernyayev quote from Chernyayev interview, April 12, 1994. Gorbachev–Li Peng exchange, Bazhanov, “Soviet Policy Towards South Korea Under Gorbachev,” 92–93. Impact of Moscow trip on Kim Young Sam’s political fortunes, Yoon Sang Hyun, “South Koreas Nordpolitik with Special Reference to Its Relationship with China,” PhD diss. (George Washington University, 1994), 255. Tkachenko quote from Tkachenko interview, October 24, 1993. On the appeal to Germany, see Philip Zelikow and Condoleezza Rice, Germany Unified and Europe Transformed (Harvard University Press, 1995), 256ff.

  Dobrynin quote and activities, Dobrynin interviews, June 22, 1993, and February 23, 1994. Roh Tae Woo on Soviet desperation, Roh interview, July 26, 1993. Gregg on “stake through the heart,” Emb. cable, “Roh Tae Woo on the Eve of Meetings with Soviet and U.S. Leaders,” June 1, 1990, Confidential (declassified 1995). Sensitivity about Soviet consulate, Kim Hak Joon, “South Korea–Soviet Union Normalization Reconsidered,”13. Gorbachev on “radical change,” Bazhanov, “Soviet Policy Towards South Korea Under Gorbachev,” 103. Kim Jong In quote, Kim interview, April 26, 1994.

  Soviet meeting notes, “M. S. Gorbachev’s Conversation with Roh Tae Woo in San Francisco,” obtained by author from the Gorbachev archive, Moscow, in Russian. For Roh’s requests to Gorbachev, “M. S. Gorbachev’s Conversation.” See also Emb. cable, “MOFA Readout on Roh-Gorbachev Meeting,” June 12, 1990, Secret (declassified 1995). Pyongyang’s reaction, Bazhanova, “North Korea and Seoul-Moscow Relations,” 336. Dobrynin quote on photograph, Dobrynin interview, June 22, 1993. Roh on the road to Pyongyang, “Opening Remarks by President Roh,” Yonhap Annual (1990), 410.

  The Shevardnadze Mission: My account of Shevardnadze’s September 1990 trip to Pyongyang comes from interviews with three members of the Soviet delegation who were present. Shevardnadze on the “most difficult, most unpleasant” mission from former Soviet diplomat, interview, July 7, 1993. Bessmertnykh quote, Bessmertnykh interview, April 14, 1994. Chernyayev quotes from Chernyayev interview, April 12, 1994.

  Choi’s argument to Gorbachev, Choi interview, April 25, 1995. Shevardnadze on “our friends,” Sergei Tarasenko interview, April 10, 1994. Rodong Sinmun on Soviet perfidy, “Commentary Denounces USSR Diplomatic Ties,” FBIS-EAS, October 5, 1990, 8. Economic data from Nicholas Eberstadt et al., “The Collapse of Soviet and Russian Trade with the DPRK, 1989–93,” Korean Journal of National Unification 4 (1995); Young Namkoong, “An Assessment of North Korean Economic Capability,” in Economic Problems of National Unification (1993); North Korea: Insights into Economy and Living (Korean-German Chamber of Commerce and Industry, 1991), in German.

  “How Long Will the Red Flag Fly?”: On the Korea desk reaction, “North Korean Reaction to Roh-Gorbachev Meeting,” Department of State Briefing Paper, June 1, 1990, Confidential (declassified 1995). For the INR report, Douglas P. Mulholland, “Soviet Initiative in Asia,” Information Memorandum, May 30, 1990, Confidential (declassified 1995). On State’s view, “Talking Points for the President’s Use in His June 6 Meeting with President Roh,” Memorandum for the White House from the Department of State, June 2, 1990, Secret (declassified 1995).

  The account of the Chinese meeting with Kim is from a former Chinese diplomat, interviews, January 23 and October 4, 1993. For Kanemaru’s trip, my account is based on interviews with a senior parliamentarian and a Foreign Ministry official who accompanied Kanemaru; interviews and writings of Hajimi Izumi and Masao Okonogi, leading Japanese experts on Korea; and an excellent reconstruction by Ushio Shioda, “What Was Discussed by the ‘Kanemaru North Korean Mission’?,” Bungei Shunju (August 1994). On the shift in Japanese policy, see B. C. Koh, “North Korea’s Approaches to the United States and Japan,” draft paper for a conference, “The Two Koreas in World Affairs,” November 1996. On “yellow skins” and “white skins,” Japanese official, interview, May 21, 1993. On Kanemaru’s apology to the United States, Michael H. Armacost, Friends or Rivals? (Columbia University Press, 1996), 147.

  An account of the secret 1990 meetings can be found in “Secret Meeting Between Suh Dong Won and Kim Il Sung and Kim Jong Il,” Monthly Chosun (August 1994), in Korean. This account was verified for me by a former high-ranking ROK official. For Kim’s conciliatory speech, see FBIS–East Asia, May 24, 1990. On the disarmament proposal, William Taylor, “Shifting Korean Breezes,” Washington Times, June 6, 1990.

  Soviet–South Korean Economic Negotiations: On Medvedev’s mission, see his Collapse (International Relations, 1994), in Russian. Roh on “exerting influence” from “M. S. Gorbachev with the President of ROK (Roh Tae Woo),” December 14, 1990, notes of conversation, from the Gorbachev archive, Moscow, in Russian. Roh’s “don’t worry” quote is from Georgi Toloraya interview, October 19, 1993. On the Saudi loan, see James A. Baker, The Politics of Diplomacy (G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1995), 294–295. For Roh’s “out of the question” quote, Kang Sung-chul, ‘“Foundation Laid for Ending Cold War’: Roh,” KH, December 18, 1990.

  The Maslyukov exchange is from a confidential source. For military supply data, Nicholas Eberstadt et al., “The Collapse of Soviet and Russian Trade with the DPRK, 1989–1993,” Korean Journal of National Unification 1 (1995). Han Yong Sup of the National Defense University, Seoul, has produced some different numbers that show the most precipitous drop in Soviet military assistance to North Korea in 1990 and a further drop in 1991. Roh money to Gorbachev, discussion with former Roh aide, June 1996. On Boldin’s comment, see his book Ten Years That Shook the World (Basic Books, 1994), 283.

  CHAPTER 10: CHINA SHIFTS ITS GROUND

  On Chinese casualties in the Korean War, see Richard Whelan, Drawing the Line (Little, Brown, 1990), 373. The quotes from Chou and Kim are from Ilpyong J. Kim, “China in North Korean Foreign Policy,” paper for the East Asian Institute, Columbia University, May 31–June 1, 1996. The disparity between DPRK and ROK trade with China, Tai Ming Cheung, “More Advice than Aid,” Far Eastern Economic Review (June 6, 1991): 15.

  A Visit to North Korea: My impressions of Pyongyang were recorded in my notebooks and in a Washington Post Magazine article, “Communism Lives,” September 22, 1991.

  On the cutback on USSR-DPRK trade, see Nicholas Eberstadt, Marc Rubin, and Albina Tretyakova, “The Collapse of Soviet and Russian Trade with the DPRK, 1989–1993,”Korean Journal of National Unification 4 (1995). On the cutback in DPRK energy consumption, see Chung Sik Lee, “Prospects for North Korea,” in
Democracy and Communism (Korean Association of International Studies, 1995). For the history of “own style” socialism, “North Korean Brand of Socialism,” Vantage Point (Seoul, February 1996), 42. The Pyongyang bombing quote is from Daewoo Lee, “Economic Consequences of the Korean War and the Vietnam War,’’ Korea Observer (Autumn 1996): 413n.

  My first interview with Kim Yong Nam was published on October 8, 1984, in WP under the headline “North Korea Says U.S. Proposals Merit Discussion.” Koh quote on Kim Yong Nam, Koh interview, October 25, 1993.

  China Changes Course: Deng quote to Carter, US-PRC Chronology, 75. Sino-ROK trade figures, Kim Sung Yoon, “Prospects for Seoul’s Entering Relations with Beijing and the Effects on Inter-Korean Relations,” East Asia Review 4, no. 2 (1992). Sino-DPRK trade, Nicholas Eberstadt (unattributed author), “China’s Trade with the DPRK, 1990–1994: Pyongyang’s Thrifty New Patron,” North Korea Trade Project Memorandum, US Bureau of the Census, May 1995. On the workings of China economic committee, former South Korean official, interview, October 27, 1995.

  On the North Korean protests about the hijacking negotiation, “Chinese Hijackers Sentenced,” Facts on File (1983): 632. Torpedo boat crisis, Richard L. Walker interview, March 30, 1995. Deng’s refusal of massive military aid, former Chinese official, interview, October 4, 1993. Roh’s medical doctor emissary, Kim Hak Joon interview, December 20, 1993. The “no filter” quote, former Roh Tae Woo aide, interview, March 14, 1995.

  On Roh’s lobbying after Tiananmen, Kim Hak Joon, “The Establishment of South Korean–Chinese Diplomatic Relations,” paper for American Enterprise Institute and George Washington University conference, December 2–3, 1993. On unofficial Sunkyung contacts, Lee Sun Sok interview, November 24, 1994. Trade offices, Roh Jae Won interview, December 3, 1993.

  On the new Chinese policy on DPRK trade, Ilpyong Kim, “North Korea’s Relations with China,” in Foreign Relations of North Korea (Sejong Institute, 1994), 265. Lee Sang Ok–Qian Qichen meeting, Lee interview, October 26, 1993. Roh-Qian meeting, from memorandum of conversation, “Dialogue with Foreign Minister Qian Qichen—11/12/91,” in Korean. Roh Tae Woo on Qian’s “kowtow,” Kim Hak Joon interview, December 20, 1993.