The Adventures of Ibn Battuta: A Muslim Traveler of the Fourteenth Century
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9. D&S, vol. 3, p. 28.
10. D&S, vol. 4, p. 449. Major commentators are divided on the question of IB’s notes. Gibb, Hrbek, and Défrémery and Sanguinetti believe he did not use travel notes when he worked with Ibn Juzayy. Gibb, Travels in Asia and Africa, p. 12; Hr, pp. 413–14; D&S, vol. 1, p. ix. Mahdi Husain thinks he did. MH, p. xviin.
11. See John Wansbrough, “Africa and the Arab Geographers” in D. Dalby (ed.), Language and History in Africa (London, 1970), pp. 89–101.
12. On the founding of the Karawiyin library, J. Berque, “Ville et université: aperçu sur l’histoire de l’école de Fès,” Revue Historique de Droit Français et Étranger (1949): 72. On the practice of learned men making their libraries available to other scholars, George Makdisi, The Rise of Colleges: Institutions of Learning in Islam and the West (Edinburgh, 1981), pp. 24–27.
13. J. N. Mattock, “Ibn Battuta’s Use of Ibn Jubayr’s Rihla” in R. Peters (ed.), Proceedings of the Ninth Congress of the Union Européene des Arabisants et Islamisants (Leiden, 1981), pp. 209–18; and “The Travel Writings of Ibn Jubair and Ibn Batuta,” Glasgow Oriental Society Transactions 21 (1965–66): 35–46.
14. On the Rihla’s possible debts to al-Bakri, Ibn Fadlan, al-’Umari, and other Muslim authors see Herman F. Janssens, Ibn Batouta, “Le Voyageur de l’Islam” (Brussels, 1948), pp. 108–09; Stephen Janicsek, “Ibn Battuta’s Journey to Bulghar: Is it a Fabrication?” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (October 1929): 794; Mattock, “Ibn Battuta’s Use of Ibn Jubayr’s Rihla,” pp. 210, 217; L&H, pp. 280–81.
15. See particularly Chapter 3, note 26.
16. See Chapter 8, note 12.
17. See various footnotes pertaining to the chronology and itinerary of trips to these areas.
18. Ibn Khaldun, The Muqaddimah, trans, and ed. Franz Rosenthal, 3 vols. (Princeton, N.J., 1958), vol. 1, pp. 369–70.
19. Ibn Khaldun, The Muqaddimah, vol. 1, p. xlii.
20. Ibn al-Khatib, quoted in Levi-Provençal, “Le Voyage d’Ibn Battuta,” p. 213.
21. Ibn Khaldun, The Muqaddimah, vol. 1, pp. 370–71.
22. Ibn Hajar al-‘Asqalani, Al-Durar al-Kamina fi A’yan al-Mi’a al-Thamina, 4 vols. (Hyderabad, 1929–31), 3: 480–81. Gb, vol. 1, pp. ix–x. On Ibn Marzuk see “Ibn Marzuk,” EI2, vol. 3, pp. 865–68.
23. Gb, vol. 1, p. x.
24. ’Abd al-Rahman ibn ’Abd Allah al-Sa’di, Tarikh es-Soudan, trans. O. Houdas (Paris, 1964), pp. 15–16; D&S, vol. 1, pp. xiii–xvi. H.T. Norris has pointed out a biographical entry on IB in a work written in 1799–1800 by a scholar from Walata in Mauritania. Review of Ross E. Dunn, The Adventures of Ibn Battuta, in The Maghrib Review 12, nos. 3–4 (1987), pp. 116–17. Tim Mackintosh-Smith (personal communication) informs me that the Moroccan Scholar Abdelhadi al-Tazi makes a case for IB’s work being known in the Middle East from the end of the sixteenth century. Al- Tazi’s Arabic edition of the Rihla has been unavailable to me in the United States. Rihlat Ibn Battuta, 5 vols. (Rabat: Royal Moroccan Academy, 1997).
25. Barbara W. Tuchman, A Distant Mirror: The Calamitous Fourteenth Century (New York, 1978).
26. Ibn Hajar’s biography quoted in Gb, vol. 1, pp. ix–x.
27. According to Tim Mackintosh-Smith, Abdelhadi Tazi reports that the text of a letter by the fourteenth-century scholar Ibn al-Khatib indicates that IB served in his later years as a judge in the Moroccan region of Tamasna, whose principal city was Anfa. Therefore, IB may be buried there. Unfortunately, medieval Anfa lies underneath modern Casablanca! Tim Mackintosh-Smith, Travels with a Tangerine: A Journey in the Footnotes of Ibn Battutah (London, 2001), pp. 34–35.
Glossary
Akhi
Member or leader of an urban men’s association, or fityan.
’alim (pl. ’ulama)
A person learned in the Islamic sciences
amir
A military commander or ruler.
baraka
Quality of divine grace
faqih
A specialist in Islamic law; a jurist.
fiqh
Jurisprudence, the science of Islamic law.
fityan
Urban association of men devoted to Muslim religious and social ideals.
ghazi
A fighter in defense of Islam.
hadith
Traditions of the words or actions of the Prophet Muhammad; one of the major sources of Islamic law.
hajj
The pilgrimage to Mecca.
harim
The restricted women’s quarters of a house or palace.
’Id al-Adha
Feast of the Sacrifice celebrated on the 10th of Dhu l-Hijja; part of the rites of the Muslim pilgrimage.
’Id al-Fitr
Feast of Breaking of the Fast celebrated on the 1st of Shawwal to mark the end of Ramadan, the Muslim month of fasting.
ihram
The state of ritual purity associated with the rites of the pilgrimage in Mecca; the simple white garments worn by males during the pilgrimage.
ijaza
Certificate authenticating the holder’s mastery of an Islamic text; conveys the right to teach the text to others.
imam
Leader of prayer in mosques; for Shi’a Muslims the divinely ordained ruler of the Muslim community.
jihad
War in defense of Islam.
Ka’ba
The sacred, cube-shaped building in Mecca.
khan
A mercantile warehouse or hostel for merchants and other travelers; also in Turkish and Mongol usage a chief or ruler.
madhhab
A school of law in Sunni Islam. The four major schools are the Hanafi, the Hanbali, the Maliki, and the Shafi’i.
madrasa
A school or college teaching the Islamic sciences, especially law.
Maghrib
The lands of North Africa, corresponding to modern Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia.
Maliki
One of the four madhhabs, or schools of law; predominant in North Africa.
mamluk
A military slave; a member of the Turkish-speaking cavalry elite that ruled Egypt and Syria under the Mamluk dynasty.
qadi
A Muslim judge.
Ramadan
The ninth month of the lunar year, which Muslims devote to fasting during daylight hours.
rihla
Travel; a type of Islamic literature concerned with travels, particularly for study and pilgrimage.
shari’a
Islamic law.
sharif
A descendant of the Prophet Muhammad.
shaykh
A title of respect, as for a tribal chief, learned man, or leader of a Sufi brotherhood.
Shi’a (Shi’ism)
Muslims who take the view that the Caliph ’Ali and his descendants are the rightful rulers of the Muslim community. The Shi’ia are divided into several minority sects within Islam. An adherent of one of these sects is a Shi’i.
Sufism
Islamic mysticism. A Sufi is a Muslim mystic and usually a member of a religious order.
Sunni
The majority sect in Islam whose members follow one of the four major madhhabs, or schools of law. Sunni Muslims are differentiated from followers of Shi’i Islam.
tawaf
The ritual of walking around the Ka’ba in Mecca seven times.
’ulama (sing. ’alim)
Persons learned in the Islamic sciences.
zawiya
A Sufi religious center or hospice. In eastern Islam, khanqa
Bibliography
Works on Ibn Battuta and His Rihla
This list excludes a number of general works on the history of geography or travel that contain summary descriptions of Ibn Battuta’s career. It also excludes partial translations of the Rihla that subsequently appeared as part of larger published works.
Abdur Rahim. “Six Hundred Years After — in the Footsteps of Ibn Battuta in And
alusia.” Peshawar University Review 51 (1973): 1–21.
Beckingham, Charles F. “From Tangier to China — 14th Century.” Hemisphere: An Asian-Australian Magazine, 8 August 1978, pp. 26–31.
—— “Ibn Battuta in Sind.” In Sind through the Centuries: Proceedings of an International Seminar, Karachi 1975. Edited by Hamida Khuhro. Karachi, 1981, pp. 139–42.
—— “In Search of Ibn Battuta.” Asian Affairs 8 (1977): 263–77.
Bhatnagar, R. “Madhyadesh in the Rehla of Ibn Battuta.” Saugar University Journal 4 (1955–56): 97–109.
Bousquet, G. H. “Ibn Battuta et les institutions musulmanes.” Studia Islamica 24 (1966): 81–106.
Carim, Fuad. Maco Polo ve Ibn Batuta. Istanbul. 1966.
Chelhod, Joesph. “Ibn Battuta, Ethnologue.” Revue de l’Occident Musulman et de la Méditerranée 25 (1978): 5–24.
Chittick, H. Neville. “Ibn Battuta and East Africa.” Journal de la Société des Africanistes 38 ( 1968): 239–41.
Cuoq, J. M. Recueil des sources arabes concernant l’Afrique occidentale du Ville au XVIe siècle. Paris, 1975.
De, Harinath (trans.), and Ghosh, P. N. (ed.). Ibn Batutah’s Account of Bengal. Calcutta, 1978.
Défrémery, C., and Sanguinetti, B. R. (trans. and eds.). Voyages d’Ibn Battuta. 4 vols. Paris, 1853–58; reprint edn., edited by Vincent Monteil. Paris, 1979.
Dulaurier, Edouard. “Description de l’archipel d’Asie, par Ibn Bathoutha.” Journal Asiatique, 4th ser., 9 (1874): 93–134, 218–59.
Fanjul, Serafin. “Elementos folkloricos en la Rihla de Ibn Battuta.” Revista del Instituto Egipico de Estudios Islamicos en Madrid 21 (1981–82): 153–79.
—— and Arbós, Federico (trans. and eds.). Ibn Battuta a través del Islam. Madrid, 1981.
Ferrand, Gabriel. Relations de voyages et textes géographiques arabes, persans, et turks relatif à l’Extrême-Orient du VIII au XVIII siècles. 2 vols. Paris, 1913–14. See vol. 2, pp. 426–58.
Freeman-Grenville, G. S. P. “Ibn Batuta’s Visit to East Africa, 1332 A.D.: A Translation.” Uganda Journal 19 (1955): 1–6.
Gabrieli, Francesco (trans. and ed.). I viaggi di Ibn Battuta. Florence, 1961.
Gibb, H. A. R. (trans. and ed.). Ibn Battuta: Travels in Asia and Africa. London, 1929; reprint edn., 1983.
—— “Notes sur les voyages d’Ibn Battuta en Asie Mineure et en Russie.” Etudes d’orientalisme dediées à la memoire de Lévi-Provençal. 2 vols. Paris. 1962. vol. 1, pp. 125–33.
—— The Travels of Ibn Battuta A.D. 1325–1354. Translated with Revisions and Notes from the Arabic Text Edited by C. Défrémery and B. R. Sanguinetti. 3 vols. Cambridge for the Hakluyt Society, 1958, 1961, 1971.
Gies, Frances Carney. “To Travel the Earth.” Aramco World Magazine (January–February 1978): 18–27.
Haig, M. R. “Ibnu Batuta in Sindh.” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 19 (1887): 393–412.
Hamdun, Said, and King, Noel (trans. and eds.). Ibn Battuta in Black Africa. London. 1975.
Hasan, Mehdi. “The Rihla of Ibn Battuta.” Proceedings of the Second Indian Historical Congress 2 (1938): 278–85.
Hrbek, Ivan. “The Chronology of Ibn Battuta’s Travels.” Archiv Orientalni 30 (1962): 409–86.
Husain, Agha Mahdi. “Dates and Precis of Ibn Battuta’s Travels with Observations.” Sind University Research Journal, Arts Series: Humanities and Social Sciences 7 (1968): 95–108.
—— “Ibn Battuta and His Rehla in New Light.” Sind University Research Journal, Arts Series: Humanities and Social Sciences 6 (1967): 25–32.
—— “Ibn Battuta, His Life and Work.” Indo-Iranica 7 (1954): 6–13.
—— “Manuscripts of Ibn Battuta’s Rehla in Paris and Ibn Juzayy.” Journal and Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal 20 (1954): 49–53.
—— (trans. and ed.). The Rehla of Ibn Battuta. Baroda, India, 1976.
—— “Studies in the Tuhfatunnuzzar of Ibn Battuta and Ibn Juzayy.” Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bangladesh 23 (1978): 18–49.
Ibn Battuta. Rihla Ibn Batuta. Beirut, 1964.
—— Rihla Ibn Battuta. 2 vols. Cairo, 1964.
Ibn Hajar al-’Asqalani. Al-Durar al-Kamina fi A’yan al-Mi’a al-Thamina. 4 vols. Hyderabad, 1929–31. See vol. 3, pp. 480–81 for biographical notice on Ibn Battuta.
Izzeddin, Mehmed. “Ibn Battouta et la topographie byzantine.” Actes du VI Congrès Internationale des Études Byzantines. 2 vols. Paris, 1951, vol. 2, pp. 191–96.
Janicsek, Stephen. “Ibn Battuta’s Journey to Bulghar: Is it a Fabrication?” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (October. 1929): 791–800.
Janssens, Herman F. Ibn Batouta, “Le Voyageur de l’Islam.” Brussels, 1948.
Khan, Abdul Majed. “The Historicity of Ibn Batuta Re. Sham-Suddin Firuz Shah, the So-Called Balbani King of Bengal.” Indian Historical Quarterly 18 (1942): 65–70.
King, Noel. “Reading between the Lines of Ibn Battuta for the History of Religion in Black Africa.” Milla wa-milla 19 (1979): 26–33.
Lee, Samuel (trans. and ed.). The Travels of Ibn Batuta. London, 1929.
Leva, A. Enrico. “Ibn Batuta nell’ Africa Nera.” Africa 16: (1961): 169–77.
Lévi-Provençal, E. “Le voyage d’Ibn Battuta dans le royaume de Grenade (1350).” Mélanges offerts à William Marçais. Paris, 1950, pp. 205–24.
Markwart, J. “Ein arabischer Bericht über die arktischen (uralischen) Länder aus dem 10 Jahrhundert.” Ungaarische Jahrbücher 4 (1924): 261–334.
Mattock, J. N. “Ibn Battuta’s Use of Ibn Jubayr’s Rihla.” In Proceedings of the Ninth Congress of the Union Européene des Arabisants et Islamisants. Edited by R. Peters. Leiden, 1981, pp. 209–18.
—— “The Travel Writings of Ibn Jubair and Ibn Batuta.” Glasgow Oriental Society Transactions 21 (1965–66): 35–46.
Mauny, R., Monteil, V., Djenidi, A., Robert, S., and Devisse, J. Textes et documents relatifs à l’histoire d’Afrique: extraits tirés des voyages d’Ibn Battuta. Dakar, 1966.
Meillassoux, C. “L’itinéraire d’Ibn Battuta de Walata à Malli.” Journal of African History 13 (1972): 389–95.
Miquel, André. “Ibn Battuta, trente années de voyages de Pekin au Niger.” Les Africains 1 (1977): 117–40.
—— “L’Islam d’Ibn Battuta.” Bulletin d’Études Orientales 30 (1978): 75–83.
Mirza, M. Wahid. “Khusrau and Ibn Battuta, a Comparative Study.” In Professor Muhammad Shafi’ Presentation Volume. Lahore, 1955, pp. 171–80.
Mollat, Michel. “Ibn Batoutah et la mer.” Travaux et Jours 18 (1966): 53–70.
Monteil, Vincent. “Introduction aux voyages d’Ibn Battuta (1325–53).” Bulletin de l’IFAN, ser. B, 30 (1968): 444–62.
Moraes, G. M. “Haryab of Ibn Batuta.” Journal of the Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 15 (1938): 37–49.
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N’Diaye, Aissatou. “Sur la transcription des vocables africains par Ibn Baththutah.” Notes Africaines 38 (1948): 26–27; 41 (1949): 31.
Netton, Ian Richard. “Myth, Miracle and Magic in the Rihla of Ibn Battuta.” Journal of Semitic Studies 29 (1984): 131–40.
Norris, H. T. “Ibn Battutah’s Andalusian Journey.” Geographical Journal 125 (1959): 185–96.
Quiros Rodriquez, C. “B. Batuta: un viajero tangerino sel siglo XIV.” Archivos del Instituto de Estudios Aficanos 6 (1952): 11–27.
Rashid, Abdur. “India and Pakistan in the Fourteenth Century as Described by Arab Travellers.” In Congresso internacional de historia dos descobrimentos. Lisbon, 1961.
Rawlinson, H. G. “The Traveller of Islam.” Islamic Culture 5 (1931): 29–37.
Saletore, R. N. “Haryab of Ibn Battuta and Harihara Nrpala.” Quarterly Journal of the Mythic Society 31 (1940–41): 384–406.
Seco de Lucena, Luis. “De toponimia granadina: Sobre el vije de Ibn Battuta al reino de Granada.” Al-Andalus 16 (1951): 49–85.
Sl
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Sobret, J. “Les Frontières chez Ibn Battuta.” In Actes du 8ème Congrès de l’Union Européenne des Arabisants et Islamisants. Aix-en-Provence, 1978, pp. 305–08.
Stewig, R. “Versuch einer Auswertung der Reisebeschreibung von Ibn Battuta (nach der englischen Übersetzung von H. A. R. Gibb) zur Bedeutungs-differenzierung westanatolischer Siedlungen.” Der Islam 47 (1971): 43–58.
Von Mzik, Hans (trans. and ed.). Die Reise des Arabers Ibn Batuta durch Indien und China. Hamburg, 1911.
Yamamoto, T. “On Tawalisi as Described by Ibn Battuta.” Memoirs of the Research Department of the Toyo Bunko 8 (1936): 93–133.
Yule, Henry. Cathay and the Way Thither. 4 vols. London, 1913–16. See vol. 4, pp. 5–166.
General Works
Abun-Nasr, Jamil M. A History of the Maghrib. Cambridge, England, 1971.
Adler, Elkan N. Jewish Travelers. London, 1930.
Arberry, Arthur J. The Koran Interpreted. New York, 1955.
Ashtor, E. A Social and Economic History of the Near East in the Middle Ages. Berkeley, 1976.
Bel, Alfred. La religion musulmane en Berbérie: esquisse d’histoire et de sociologie religieuses. Paris, 1938.
Boyle, John Andrew. The Mongol World Empire 1206–1370. London, 1977.
Brice, William C. (ed.). An Historical Atlas of Islam. Leiden, 1981.
Brignon, Jean; Amine, Abdelaziz; Boutaleb, Brahim; Martinet, Guy; and Rosenberger, Bernard. Histoire du Maroc. Paris, 1967.
Chaunu, Pierre. L’expansion européenne du XIIIe au XVe siècle. Paris, 1969.
Cook, M. A. (ed.). Studies in the Economic History of the Middle East. Oxford, 1970.