drug holidays, 144–145
drug resistance, 142–144, 147, 211, 263–265, 267
DTaP vaccine, 217–218
DTP: A Shot in the Dark, 209, 219
DTP vaccine, 206, 207–211, 218–219, 237
DTP: Vaccine Roulette, 207–208, 219
Dubos, Rene, 112–113
Duclaux, Emile, 189
Dufferin, Frederick, 183, 184
dysentery, 123–124
E
Ebola virus, xiii, xv, 12, 88, 159, 257, 269–270
Eboracum, 2
Ecuyer, Simeon, 31
Edmonston, David, 228
Edward the Martyr, 34
Egypt, 10, 11, 93
Ehrenberg, Christian Gottfried, 91–95
Ehrlich, Paul, 73–80, 148, 152, 154–156, 159
Eilshemius, Louis Michel, 77
Eldering, Grace, 203–206
electron microscopy, 118
Eliava, George, 125–126
Elion, Gertrude, 136–141, 188
Ems Telegram, 175, 181
encephalitis, xvii
Enders, John, 68, 223–228, 231
endogenous retroviruses (ERVs), 145
endosymbiosis, 64–66, 116
endotoxins, 108–111
Entebbe, Uganda, 247, 249, 254
enzymes, restriction, 63
eosinophils, 75, 83
epidemiology, 50
episomes, 145–146
epitopes, 149, 170–171
Epstein-Barr virus, 140
Erasmus, 123
Ersdotter, Pilt Carin, 32
ERVs. See endogenous retroviruses
erythrocytes, 71
Escherichia coli (E. coli), 165–166, 172, 262
Escherick, Theodor, 165–166
Ethiopia, 11, 51
eukaryotic cells, 65–66, 116
Europeans
arrival, in New World, 17–18
royal families, 174
evolution, 61–64, 116
antibodies, 149
parallel, 13–14
viruses, 141–143
exotoxins, 108
F
Farber, Sydney, 226
Fc receptor, 151
Feller, Alto E., 225–226
fermentation, 96, 122
Fertile Crescent, 7
Fewster, John, 30–32, 35–36
fibrin, 168
Fildes, Paul, 106
Finlay, Carlos Juan, 252–253
first-to-file provision, 28–29
First World War, 123–124, 152, 190, 224, 225
Fischer, Bernhard, 182
Fisher, Barbara Loe, 208, 209, 219
flaviviruses, 249–260
Flewett, Thomas Henry, 54
Food and Drugs Administration (FDA), 164–165
food poisoning, 101–104, 111, 165–166
foot-and-mouth disease, 190
formalin, 190, 191
Fort Detrick, 104
Fort Keough, 229
Fort Pitt, 31
Fossett, Joseph, 43
Fracastoro, Girolamo, 90
fractionation, 167–169
France, 198, 199
Franco-Prussian War, 39, 76, 175–176, 181, 189
Frank, Anne, 93
Frank, Johann Peter, 102
Freeman, John, 201
French Third Republic, 176
Friedlander, Carl, 74
Fuller, R. Buckminster, 112
G
Gabcik, Jozef, 105
Gaffky, Georg, 182
Galen, 8, 80–81
Galtier, Pierre Victor, 185–187
gamma globulins, 168, 169, 170
Ganges River, 120, 121
Gantt, Edward, 43
Garnier, Gilles, 95
Garrett, Laurie, 242
gay-related immune deficiency (GRID), 140
Geddes, Patrick, 112
Geedes, Alasdair, 54
genetic bottlenecks, 13–14
genetic diversity, 13–14, 16, 17
genetic mutation, 12–13
genetics, bacterial, 62
Gengou, Octave, 200–201
genital herpes, 133–134, 145
George II, 21
German measles. See rubella
Germany, 198, 199
germ theory of disease, 89–90, 212
Gibbon, Edward, 2
Gillray, James, 44
glanders, 177–178
Glanz, Jason, 218
Glenny, Alexander Thomas, 191, 205
Glick, Bruce, 169
Glover, Ann, 22–23
Gluge, Gottlieb, 73
Gmelin, Leopold, 117
gonorrhea, 133
Goodwin, John, 22
Gordon, Jeffrey, 113
Gordon, Loney Clinton, 204–206
Gorgas, William Crawford, 253
Graff, Reinier de, 91
Gram, Hans Christian, 74
Gram stain, 74
Granada, siege of, 92–93
Grancher, Jacques-Joseph, 187, 189
Granger, Ursula, 42
Great War, 198, 225
Greece, 6, 10–11, 29
Guaramante people, 23
Guerin, Camile, 264
Gullino, Francesco, 79
gut bacteria, 113–114, 266
H
Habel, Karl, 226
Haddad, Wadie, 247–248
Haeckel, Ernst, 74
Haffkine, Waldemar Mordecai, 182–185, 192–197
Haiti, 251
Hancock, John, 41
handwashing, 99
Hankin, Ernest Hanbury, 120–121, 183–184
Hannibal, 5–6
hantavirus, 262
Hardin, Garret, 13
Harris, R.C., 162–163
Harrison, Elizabeth, 21
Hartigan, Grace, 129–130
The Harvard Crimson, ix
Harvard School of Medicine, 41
Harvard University, ix–x, 40
Hayflick, Leonard, 228
Haygarth, John, 41
Hedrich, Arthur William, 244
Heliobacter pylori, 114, 266
helper T cells, 81–82, 84
hemagglutinins, 216
hematology, 71
hemorrhagic fevers, 256–263
Hemprich, Wilhelm, 92, 93
Henderson, Donald A., 50–52
hendra virus, 262
Henry VIII, 58
hepatitis C, 262
herd effect, xvii
herd immunity, 243–246, 268, 269, 276–277
hermorrhagic fever, 256–260
Herod the Great, 8
herpes, 133–134, 139–140, 145
herpes zoster virus, 145–146
Hesse, Fanny, 76–77
Hesse, Walther, 75–77
Heydrich, Reinhard Tristan Eugen, 104–106
Hieraskaminos, 2
Hilleman, Jeryl Lynn, 230–231
Hilleman, Maurice, 130, 228–231
Himmler, Heinrich, 105
Hippocrates, 60–61
Hispaniola, 251
histology, 70, 73
Hitchings, George, 136–141
Hitler, Adolf, 104, 105, 153, 176
Hitler, Klara Polzl, 153
HIV. See human immunodeficiency virus
H. K. Mulford, 162
Ho, David, 143–144
homeopathy, 44–45, 46, 208–209
Hong King, 194
Hooke, Robert, 91–92
Hopkins, Barbara, 191
Horesh, Ronnie, 270
host cells, 64–65
host species, evolution of, 13
The Hot Zone (Preston), 257
HSV-1, 133–134
HSV-2, 134
Huddleston, Ernest Urban Trevor, 259–260
human body
dissection of, 58
microbiome of, 113, 265–266
human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), 12, 82, 128, 140–145, 212, 237–238, 262
human metapneumovirus
, 262
Humboldt, Alexander von, 93–94
Hundred Years’ War, 199
hybridomas, 171
hydra, 66–67
hygiene, 98–101
Hygienic Laboratory, 164
hypervariable region, 150
I
immune response, 131
immune system, xii–xiii, 22, 69–73, 81–88
antibodies, 148–151, 169–172
endotoxins and, 108–111
overresponse by, 256–257
physiological stressors on, 130
reaction of, to antisera, 165–167
immunity
acquired, 79–80
active, 155, 178
evolution and, 61–64
herd, 243–246, 268, 269, 276–277
passive, 155–159
immunology, 80
inbreeding, 174
India, 184–185, 192–195, 260
Indonesia, 51
Indus River valley, 10
Industrial Revolution, 2
infectious diseases
see also specific diseases
causes of, 75, 77–78, 89–90, 120
emergence of new, xiii, 11–12, 221, 260–263
epidemiology, 12–13
fear of, xii
forgotten, x
history of, xii–xiii
hygiene and, 98–101
outbreaks of, xvii, 243, 245, 277
public health threat of, 116
spread of, in New World, 17–19
spread of, in Roman times, 2
vulnerability to, xi
war against, xii–xiii
wars and, 11, 123–124, 153
influenza, xii, 263, 267, 275–276
Intensified Programme, 51
interferons, 68
interleukins, 82, 84
intravenous immunoglobulins (IVIG), 170
iodoform, 153
iron lung, xii
Isaacs, Alick, 68
Isabella II, 175
Isle of Purbeck, 34
Israel, 158–159, 247
Ivanovsky, Dmitri Iosifovich, 118
J
Jackson, Mary Anne, 241
Jacobson v. Massachusetts, 47
Janeway, Charles, Jr., 168
Janeway, Charles, Sr., 168–169, 226
Janeway, Edward Gamaliel, 168
Janeway, George Jacob, 168
Janeway, Jacob Jones, 168
Janeway, Theodore Caldwell, 168
Japan, 206–207, 216–217
jawless fish, 68–69
Jefferson, Thomas, 40, 42–43, 47, 94
Jenner, Edward, 26–29, 31–32, 36–40, 98, 148
Jesty, Benjamin, 32–34, 37, 38, 271, 276
Jesty, Robert, 29
JH virus, 130
John (king), 123
Jordan, 248
The Jungle (Sinclair), 46
K
Keith, James, 21
Keller, Helen, 45
Kendrick, Pearl, 202–206
Kennedy, Robert, Jr., 242
Kerner, Justinius, 103
killer T cells, 82
Kimberley, John, 184
Kinnear, Johnnie, 213
Klebs, Theodor Albrecht Edwin, 74, 107
Klein, Johann, 98–101
Knights Templar, 58–59
Koch, Robert, 75–78, 100, 104, 120, 151–155, 177–179, 181–182, 188, 264
Koch Institute, 201
Koch’s postulates, 78
Kohler, Georges, 171
Kohn, Eric, 241
Kolletschka, Jakob, 100
Koplik, Henry, 222
Koplik spots, 222–223
Kostov, Vladimir, 79
Kubis, Jans, 105
L
Lady Godiva, 235–236
lamprey eel, 68
Lancet, 231–232, 233, 240
Langerhans, Paul, 166
Langmiur, Alexander D., 50
Laurent, Marie, 96
Le Bar, Eugene, 47–48
Lee, Robert E., 5
Leeuwenhoek, Anton van, 72, 90–92
Lenin, Vladimir, 176
Leopold, Prince of Hohenzollern, 175
Leo VI, 101, 102
leukocytes, 71, 72–73, 75
Levant, 4
Lewis, Sinclair, 124, 129
Lindenmann, Jean, 68
Linnaean Society, 183
Lister, Joseph, 196
Little, Kenneth Marion, 45, 47
Little, Lora Cornelia, 45–47
Little Dreyfus Affair, 195–197
Little Turtle, 43
Liuzzi, Mondino de, 58
livestock, 114, 266
Livingstone, David, 123
Lloyd, William Forster, 13
locusts, 122–123
Loffler, Friedrich, 154
Loir, Adrien, 180
Lombardo, Bertuccio, 58
Longinus, Gaius Cassius, 8
Louis XIV, 251
Loveday, Susan, 214
Loveday v. Renton and Wellcome Foundation, 214, 237
Luddites, 44
Ludlow, Daniel, 27, 31
Lumsden, William Hepburn Russell, 258–259
lupus, 81
Lyme disease, 262
lymph nodes, 60, 72–73
lymphocytes, 80
lytic cycle, 134
M
Maalin, Ali Maow, 52–54
Macedon, 5
Macedonia, 6
macrophages, 83, 151
“magic bullet,” 148
Maitland, Charles, 20, 21
major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecule, 84, 85
malaria, 50, 52, 54, 90, 153
mammals, 69
Mann, Charles C., 16
Mantoux, Charles, 172
Marburg virus, 157–159
Margulis, Lynn, 65
Markov, Georgi, 79
Marx, Karl, 176
Mather, Cotton, 22–25, 28, 34, 44, 198
Mayer, Adolf, 117–118
Mbeki, Thabo, 212
McCarthy, Jenny, xiii, 242, 277
McCarthy, Kevin, 228
measles, 220–223, 227, 228, 243
measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR) vaccine, 220, 231–246
medical science
see also biotechnology; vaccines
advances in, 58, 69–73
Medical Society of the District of Columbia, 163–164
MedImmune, xiv–xv
Meister, Joseph, 187
memory T cells, 82–85
meningitis, ix
Menu, Heinrich, 92
mesales, xii
metabolites, 135
Metchnikoff, Elias, 182–183, 189, 199
methicillin, 211
methicillin-resistant staphylococcal aureus (MRSA), 142, 147
#MeToo movement, 277–278
miasma, 74, 75, 120, 209, 252
microbes, 67
attenuation, 12–13
discovery of, 91
microbiome, 66–67, 265–266
microencephaly, 250
microorganisms, xiii
benefits of, 111–114
evolution of, 11–14
role of, xiii
microscope, 71, 90–92
microscopy, 75, 91–92, 94–95, 118
Miles, Nelson Appleton, 229
milkmaids, 32–35
Miller, David, 210–211, 215
Milstein, Cesar, 171
Mississippian culture, 17
Mitchell, John Kearsley, 252
mitochondria, 65–66, 116
Mklomaindo Hospital, 258
MMR vaccine. See measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR) vaccine
Mnookin, Seth, 207–208, 241
Momont, Marthe, 190
monoclonal antibodies, 171–172
mononucleosis, 140
Montagu, Lady Mary Wortley, 20–21, 28, 30
Montgomery, Richard, 40
mosquitoes, 249–250, 251, 254
Moynih
an, Daniel Patrick, 276
multicellular organisms, 66–67
multi-drug resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB), 142
multiple sclerosis, 81
mumps, ix–x, xii, xiv–xviii, 220, 226–227, 230–231, 245, 267–268
Murat, Marshall Joachim-Napoleon, 71
Mycobacterium tuberculosis, 264
myocarditis, 106–107
N
Napoleon III, 175, 176
nasal insufflation, 19–21
National Childhood Encephalopathy Study (NCES), 210–211
National Childhood Vaccine Injury Act, 209, 216
National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), 165
National Institute of Health, 164–165
National Vaccine Information Center (NVIC), 208–209, 219
Native Americans, 14–18, 30–31, 43
Needham, Joseph, 19
Neisser, Albert Ludwig Sigesmund, 73
Nelms, Sarah, 27
Netanyahu, Yonatan, 248–249
neutrophils, 83
New World
arrival of Europeans in, 17–18
population of, 17
smallpox in, 18–20, 30–31, 222
yellow fever in, 251
Nile River valley, 10
Nine Years’ War, 251
nipha virus, 262
Nobel Prize, 112, 124, 126, 136, 141, 154, 156, 157, 188, 200, 227
Nocard, Edmond, 182
Noguchi, Hideyo, 254–255
North America
indigenous peoples of, 14–18
migration to, 14–17
North Korea, 273
Notley, Anne, 33
nucleus, 65, 116
Nuremberg Code, 184
NVIC. See National Vaccine Information Center
O
Obama, Barack, 28–29
obesity, 113–114
Octavius, Gaius, 1, 8
Offit, Paul, 208
Old Testament, 10
Onesimus, 23–24
Operation Anthropoid, 105
Operation Thunderbolt, 248–249
Orphan Drug Act, 270
Orwell, George, 264
Osten, Lina von, 104–105
Ottoman Empire, 20, 23, 92
Owen, Robert, 44
P
Panama, 253, 254
Pan American Health Organization (PAHO), 50, 51
Panthay Rebellion, 193–194
parallel evolution, 13–14
Paris Commune, 176
Parker, Janet, 54–56
Parthians, 7, 8
passive immunity, 155–159
Pasteur, Louis, 95–98, 117, 120, 159, 176–182, 186–189
Pasteur, Marie, 180
Pasteur Institute, 108, 121, 122–123, 140, 154, 156, 178, 180–183, 188–190, 201
pasteurization, 96
Patagonia, 15, 16
patent system, 28–29
pathogens, xiii
see also bacteria; viruses
discovery of new, 147–148
evolution of, 11–14
immune system and, 73, 80–86
mutation of, 12–13
public health threat of, 116
Pax Romana, 1–2
Pead, Patrick, 33
Pearson, George, 36
Peebles, Thomas C., 228
Peeping Tom, 236
peer review, 233
Peloponnesian War, 10, 61, 123
penicillin, 62, 125, 211
peptides, 84
Between Hope and Fear Page 44