Caesar: Life of a Colossus

by Adrian Goldsworthy

  9 Dio 37. 49. 1-4, Plutarch, Pompey 44, Cato the Younger 30. 5, Cicero, ad Att. 1. 18, 19.

  10 Cicero, ad Att. 2. 1.

  11 Horace, Odes 2. 1. 1; for a perceptive overview of these years see P. Wiseman, `The Senate and the Populares, 69-60 BC', in CAH2 IX (1994), pp. 327-367, esp. pp.358-367.

  12 Cicero, ad Att. 2. 1, and 1. 17 for December 61 talk of alliance between Caesar and Lucceius. See M. Gelzer, Caesar (1968), p. 60, fn. 1, plausibly interpreting Suetonius' words literally to indicate that Caesar divorced Pompeia by letter.

  13 Appian, BC 2. 8, Plutarch, Cato the Younger 31. 2-3, Dio 37. 54. 1-2.

  14 Suetonius, Caesar 19. 2; for the suggestion that this was a means of keeping the consuls in reserve see Seager (2002), p. 84; on personal hatreds and enemies see D. Epstein, Personal Enmity in Roman Politics 218-43 BC (1978).

  15 See L. Ross Taylor, Roman Voting Assemblies:From the Hannibalic War to the Dictatorship of Caesar (1966), esp. pp. 84-106.

  16 See Taylor (1966), pp. 54-55, H. Mouritsen, Plebs and Party Politics in the Late Roman Republic (2001), pp. 27-32; on the population of Rome at this time see N. Purcell, `The City of Rome and the plebs urbana in the Late Republic', in CAH2 IX (1994), pp.644-688.

  17 Suetonius, Caesar 19. 1; Cicero, ad Att. 1. 1; on the importance of the Italian vote see L. Ross Taylor, Party Politics in the Age of Caesar (1949), pp. 57-59.

  18 Cicero, ad Att. 2. 3.

  19 Suetonius, Caesar 19.

  20 Suetonius, Caesar 19. 2, Dio 37. 56-58, Appian, BC 2. 9; see also Seager (2002), pp. 82-85, Ward (1977), pp. 210-216, Gelzer (1968), pp. 67-69, C. Meier, Caesar (1996), pp. 182-189.

  21 Plutarch, Caesar 13, Pompey 47; on oaths see Livy, Pers. 103, Appian, BC 2. 9, and Pliny, Epistulae 10. 96; for a case of two enemies each canvassing for the same candidate see Cicero, ad Att. 2. 1.

  22 Suetonius, Caesar 20. 1, cf. Plutarch, Cato the Younger 23. 3.

  23 Dio 38. 1. 1-7, Suetonius, Caesar 20. 1; on the chronology of this year see L. Ross Taylor, `The Dating of Major Legislation and Elections in Caesar's First Consulship', Historia 17 (1968), pp. 173-193; see also Gelzer (1968), pp. 71-74, Meier (1996), pp. 207-213, Seager (2002), pp. 86-87; on the five `inner' commissioners see Cicero, ad Att. 2. 7.

  24 Dio 38. 2. 1-3. 3 Suetonius, Caesar 20. 4 gives a slightly different version apparently dating Cato's arrest to later in the year. Plutarch, Cato the Younger 33. 1-2 also places this incident later; on Petreius' military experience see Sallust, Bell. Cat. 59. 6.

  25 Dio 38. 4. 1-3.

  26 Dio 38. 4. 4-5. 5, Plutarch, Pompey 47; for the date of the vote see Taylor (1968), pp. 179-181.

  27 Dio 38. 6. 1-3, Plutarch, Cato the Younger 32. 2; see Taylor (1969), p. 179 on Bibulus' intentions.

  28 Dio 38. 6. 4-7. 2, Appian, BC 2. 11, Plutarch, Cato the Younger 32. 2-6, Suetonius, Caesar 20. 1.

  29 Suetonius, Caesar 20. 2, Dio 38. 8. 2; see also Taylor (1968), pp. 177-179.

  30 Suetonius, Caesar 20. 3-4, 54. 3, Dio 38. 7. 4-6, Cicero, In Vatinium 29, 38; see Gelzer (1968), pp. 75-6, Seager (2002), p. 88; for some sense of Vatinius' character see his letters to Cicero, ad Fam. 5. 9, 10 and 10A; on Caesar's law regulating governors see T. Rice Holmes, The Roman Republic, 1 (1928), p. 319, and Cicero, pro Sestio 64, 135, In Pisonem 16, 37, In Vatinium 12, 29, ad Att. 5. 10. 2.

  31 Suetonius, Caesar 21, 50. 1-2, and on his fondness for pearls 47, Plutarch, Pompey 47-48, Caesar 14, Dio 38. 9. 1.

  32 Dio 38. 7. 3, Suetonius, Caesar 20. 3, Cicero, ad Att. 2. 15, 16, 17 and 18.

  33 Dio 38. 12. 1-3, Cicero, de Domo 41, ad Att. 8. 3, de provinciis consularibus 42, Suetonius, Caesar 20. 4, Plutarch, Caesar 14; see also Gelzer (1968), pp. 76-78.

  34 Cicero, ad Att. 2. 9.

  35 Cicero, ad Att. 2. 16 and 17; on C. Cato see ad Quintum Fratrem 1. 2. 5.

  36 Cicero, ad Att. 2. 19.

  37 Cicero, ad Att. 2. 21, 22 and 23.

  38 Cicero, ad Att. 2. 24.

  39 Cicero, ad Att. 2. 24, In Vatinium 24-26, pro Sestio 132, Dio 38. 9. 2-10. 1, Suetonius, Caesar 20. 5, Appian, BC 2. 12-13, Plutarch, Lucullus 42. 7-8; for Caesar as the prime mover behind these events see Rice Holmes (1928), pp. 323-324 and Gelzer (1968), pp. 90-92, Meier (1996), p. 221; for Clodius see Seager (2002), pp. 98-99; for Pompey's involvement see Ward (1977), pp. 236-241, Gruen, The Last Generation of the Roman Republic (1974), pp. 95-96; for a more complex interpretation and the suggestion that there may actually have been a plot see D. Stockton, Cicero (1971), pp. 183-186.

  40 Suetonius, Caesar 23, 73, Scholia Bobiensia on Cicero, pro Sestio 40 and In Vatinium 15.

  41 Suetonius, Caesar 22. 2 (Loeb translation); on Cicero's fears of civil war see ad Att. 2. 20, 21 and 22.

  IX Gaul

  1 Pliny, NH 7. 92.

  2 Hirtius from his preface to BG 8.

  3 Pliny, NH 7. 92, Appian, BC 2. 150.

  4 For Theophanes see Cicero, pro Archia 24; for Caesar's earlier works see Suetonius, Caesar 56. 5-7; for the Commentaries in general see the collection of papers in K. Welch & A. Powell (eds.), Julius Caesar as Artful Reporter:The War Commentaries as Political Instruments (1998).

  5 Cicero, Brutus 262.

  6 'An orator should avoid a . . .', see Gellius, NA 1. 10. 4; see also L. Hall, `Ratio and Romanitas in the Bellum Gallicum', in Welch & Powell (1998), pp. 11-43, esp. p. 23.

  7 For the dating of the Commentaries see M. Gelzer, Caesar (1968), pp. 170-172, C. Meier, Caesar (1996), pp. 254-264; for the arguments in favour of annual publication see Welch & Powell (1998), and especially the article by P. Wiseman, `The Publication of the De Bello Gallico', pp. 1-9, and also T. Rice Holmes, Caesar's Conquest of Gaul (1911), pp. 202-209 see also Hirtius, BG 8 preface and Suetonius, Caesar 56. 3-4.

  8 Cicero, de Finibus 5. 52; see also Wiseman (1998), esp. pp. 4-7.

  9 Suetonius, Caesar 56. 4.

  10 Cicero, de provinciis consularibus 3. 5, ad Quintum Fratrem 2. 14-16, 3. 1-9.

  11 On Labienus see R. Syme, `The Allegiance of Labienus', JRS 28 (1938), pp. 113-128, esp. p. 120 and W. Tyrrell, `Labienus' Departure from Caesar in January 49 BC', Historia 21 (1972), pp. 424-440.

  12 On Cotta's book see Cicero, ad Att. 13. 44. 3, cf. Athenaeus 273b and Hall, (1998), pp. 11-43, esp. p. 25; on the identity of Caesar's legates see Broughton, MRR 2, pp. 197-199.

  13 Caesar, BG 1. 39; Cicero, ad Att. 2. 18. 3, 19. 5, de provinciis consularibus 41; E. Gruen, The Last Generation of the Roman Republic (1974), pp. 112-116.

  14 For Caesar's legions see H. Parker, The Roman Legions (1957), pp. 47-71, esp. 55-56. On the army in this period see E Adcock, The Roman Art of War under the Republic (1940), P. Brunt, Italian Manpower, 225 BC -AD 14 (1971), P. Connolly, Greece and Rome at War (1981), M. Feugere (ed.), L'Equipment Militaire et L'Armement de la Republique. JRMES 8 (1997), E. Gabba, The Roman Republic, the Army and the Allies (1976), L. Keppie, The Making of the Roman Army (1984), Y Le Bohec, The Imperial Roman Army (1994), J. Harmand, L'armee et le soldat a Rome de 107 a 50 avant ndtre ere (1967).

  15 For an introduction to this question with further references see A. Goldsworthy. The Roman Army at War, 100 BC -AD 200 (1996), pp. 31-32.

  16 For equipment see Goldsworthy (1996), pp. 83-84, 209-219, M. Bishop & J. Coulston, Roman Military Equipment (1993), Connolly, (1981), and Feugere, (1997).

  17 See D. Saddington, The Development of the Roman Auxiliary Forces from Caesar to Vespasian (1982); Caesar, BC 1. 39 for numbers of auxiliary cavalry and infantry.

  18 For a discussion of this see C. Goudineau, Cesar et la Gaule (1995), pp. 130-148.

  19 Caesar, BG 1. 1, 6. 11-20; for a good survey of Gallic society see N. Roymans, Tribal Societies in Northern Gaul: An Anthropological Perspective, Cingula 12 (1990), esp. pp. 17-47, and B. Cunliffe, Greeks, Romans and Barbarians: Spheres of Interaction (1988), esp. pp. 38-58 and 80-105.

  20 See M. Todd, The Northern Barbarians (1987), pp. 11-13, The Early Germans (1992), pp. 8-13, C. M. Wells, The German Policy of Augustus (1972), pp. 14-31, a
nd most recently the useful survey in P. Wells, The Barbarians Speak: How the Conquered Peoples Shaped the Roman Empire (1999).

  21 For Domitius Ahenobarbus see Suetonius, Nero 2; on exchanging a slave for an amphora see Diodorus Siculus 5. 26. 3-4; on the relations between Gauls and Romans and the history of Transalpine Gaul see S. Dyson, The Creation of the Roman Frontier (1985), pp.126-173; on the wine trade see Cunliffe (1988), 59-105, esp. p. 74, and Roymans (1990), pp. 147-167 and A. Tchernia, `Italian Wine in Gaul at the End of the Republic', in P. Garnsey, K. Hopkins & C. Whittaker (eds.), Trade in the Ancient Economy (1983), pp. 87-104.

  22 Wells (1999), pp.49-78, Cunliffe (1988), pp. 48-49, 86-87, 96-97, 132-134, Dyson (1985), pp. 137-139, 154, and C. Goudineau (1995), pp. 141-143.

  23 On human sacrifice at Rome see Pliny, NH 30. 12-13; on head-hunting see Polybius 3. 67, Livy 10. 26, 23. 24, Diodorus Siculus 5. 29. 2-5, M. Green, Dictionary of Celtic Myth and Legend (1992), pp. 116-118; on human sacrifice in Germany see Todd (1992), pp. 112-115.

  24 Strabo, Geog. 4. 4. 5 (Loeb translation by H. Jones (1923), p. 247).

  25 Caesar, BG 6. 15, cf. Strabo, Geog. 4. 4. 2; on Ribemont-sur-Ancre see T. Derks, Gods, Temples and Ritual Practices: The Transformation of Religious Ideas and Values in Roman Gaul (1998), p. 48, 234-5.

  26 Caesar, BG 1. 18, 31-33; see also Dyson (1985), pp. 169-170, Cunliffe (1988), p. 94, 118.

  27 For a more detailed discussion of Gallic armies see Goldsworthy (1996), pp. 53-60.

  28 Dyson (1985), pp. 168-171; Caesar, BG 1. 36, 40, 44, Cicero, ad Att. 1. 19, 20.

  X Migrants and Mercenaries: The first campaigns, 58 BC

  1 Cicero, ad Att. 1. 19.

  2 Caesar, BG 1. 6-7, Plutarch, Caesar 17.

  3 Caesar, BG 1. 2.

  4 Caesar, BG 1. 2-3, 18, cf. C. Goudineau, Cesar et la Gaule (1995), 136-137.

  5 Caesar, BG 1. 4, Pliny, NH 2. 170 records the meeting between Roman ambassadors and a Suebian king, who was probably Ariovistus; see also S. Dyson, The Creation of the Roman Frontier (1985), pp. 169-170. 172, B. Cunliffe, Greeks, Romans and Barbarians: Spheres of Interaction (1988), pp. 114-117.

  6 For a discussion see T. Rice Holmes, Caesar's Conquest of Gaul (1911) pp. 218-224, and H. Delbruck, History of the Art of War, Volume 1: Warfare in Antiquity (1975), pp. 459-478.

  7 Caesar, BG 6. 11; on the desire for allied tribes around provincial frontiers see Dyson (1985), pp. 170-173.

  8 Caesar, BG 1. 5-6; for the focus on the Balkans, see Goudineau (1995), pp. 130-148; for Helvetii's numbers and size of columns see Holmes (1911), pp. 239-240, Delbruck (1975), pp. 460-463.

  9 Caesar, BG 1. 7-8, cf Appian, Mithridatic Wars 99, Plutarch, Crassus 10.

  10 Caesar, BG 1. 8.

  11 Caesar, BG 1. 10.

  12 Caesar, BG 1. 10-11, Cicero, de provinciis consularibus 28, Suetonius, Caesar 24; L. Keppie, The Making of the Roman Army (1984), p. 98.

  13 Caesar, BG 1. 11, 16; on the logistics of the Roman army, including discussions of the number of slaves and camp followers see P. Erdkamp, Hunger and Sword: Warfare and Food Supply in Roman Republican Wars 264-30 BC (1998), J. Roth, The Logistics of the Roman Army at War, 264 BC-AD 235 (1999), A. Labisch, Frumentum Commeatusque. Die Nab rungs m ittelve rsongung der Heere Caesars (1975), and A. Goldsworthy, The Roman Army at War, 100 BC - AD 200 (1996), pp. 287-296.

  14 Caesar, BG 1. 12.

  15 Caesar, BG 1. 13.

  16 Caesar, BG 1. 13-14.

  17 Caesar, BG 1. 15-16.

  18 Caesar, BG 1. 16-20, cf. Goudineau (1995), p. 138.

  19 See Arrian, Alexander 3. 10. 1-4 on the danger and difficulties of night attacks.

  20 Caesar, BG 1. 21-22; for a discussion of this operation see Goldsworthy (1996), pp. 128-130.

  21 Caesar, BG 1. 23.

  22 Sallust, Bell. Cat. 59, Plutarch, Crassus 11. 6; for a discussion of the commander's role before and during battle see Goldsworthy (1996), pp. 131-163; on pre-battle speeches see M. Hansen, `The Battle Exhortation in Ancient Historiography: Fact or Fiction', Historia 42 (1993), pp. 161-180.

  23 For the battle see Caesar, BG 1. 24-26; for discussion of the nature of battles in this period see Goldsworthy (1996), pp. 171-247.

  24 Caesar, BG 26-29.

  25 Caesar, BG 1. 30-33.

  26 Caesar, BG 1. 34-37.

  27 Caesar, BG 1. 39.

  28 Dio 38. 35. 2.

  29 Caesar, BG 1. 40.

  30 Caesar, BG 1.39-41.

  31 Caesar, BG 1. 41, cf. Plutarch, Sulla 5 for the fame he derived from being the first Roman magistrate to receive a Parthian envoy.

  32 Caesar, BG 1. 42-46.

  33 Caesar, BG 1. 46-47.

  34 Caesar, BG 1. 48, cf. Tacitus, Germania 6; for a discussion of Germanic armies see Goldsworthy (1996), pp. 42-53.

  35 Caesar, BG 1. 49.

  36 For the encouragement offered by German women to their warrior husbands see Tacitus, Germania?-8.

  37 Caesar, BG 1. 51-54; See Frontinus, Strategemata 2. 6. 3 on letting the Germans escape.

  38 Caesar, BG 1. 54.

  XI `The Bravest of the Gaulish Peoples': The Belgae, 57 BC

  1 Caesar, BG 2. 15.

  2 Strabo, Geog. 4. 4. 2 (Loeb translation by H. Jones (1923), p. 237).

  3 For promotions of centurions for gallantry see Caesar, BG 6. 40; Suetonius, Caesar 65. 1; on centurions' command style and heavy casualties see A. Goldsworthy, The Roman Army at War, 100 BC - AD 200 (1996), pp. 257-8, cf. Caesar, BG 7. 51, BC 3. 99; also on the competition to show conspicuous valour and win promotion or reward see BG 5. 44, 7. 47, 50, BC 3. 91.

  4 On sudden marches and relaxed discipline see Suetonius, Caesar 65, 67; for a discussion of Marius' style of command see A. Goldsworthy, In the Name of Rome (2003), pp. 113-136 (or 2004 edn, pp. 127-153).

  S Plutarch, Caesar 17 (Loeb translation by B. Perrin (1919), p. 483).

  6 See Suetonius, Caesar 67. 2 for commilitones and inlaid weapons; see also Polybius 6. 39 and Goldsworthy (1996), pp. 264-282 on individual boldness.

  7 On Pompeius Trogus see Justin, 43. 5. 12; for Caesar dictating letters while on horseback see Plutarch, Caesar 17; on receiving petitioners while in Cisalpine Gaul for the winter, Plutarch, Caesar 20.

  8 On Valerius Meto see Plutarch, Caesar 17; for dining arrangements see Suetonius, Caesar 48; Catullus, 29.

  9 Catullus, 57 (Loeb translation by E Cornish (1988), pp. 67-69).

  10 Suetonius, Caesar 73.

  11 Suetonius, Caesar 51; Tacitus, Histories 4. 55; for other poems attacking Mamurra see Catullus, 41, 43.

  12 Caesar, BG 2. 1; for a summary of Pompey's campaigns see Goldsworthy (2003), pp. 169-179 (or 2004 edn, pp. 190-201).

  13 See N. Roymans, Tribal Societies in Northern Gaul: An Anthropological Perspective, Cingula 12 (1990), pp. 11-15, cf. Tacitus, Germania 28, Caesar, BG 2. 4, 15, 5. 12; on resistance to Cimbri see BG 2. 4, and descent from them of the Atuatuci, 2. 29.

  14 Caesar, BG 2. 2-5; on numbers see T. Rice Holmes, Caesar's Conquest of Gaul (1911), p. 71, and L. Rawlings, `Caesar's Portrayal of Gauls as Warriors', in K. Welch & A. Powell, Julius Caesar as Artful Reporter: The War Commentaries as Political Instruments (1998), pp. 171-192, esp. 175, and fn. 13. For an extremely critical view of Caesar's numbers see H. Delbruck, History of the Art of War, Volume 1: Warfare in Antiquity (1975), pp.488-494. Delbruck believed that barbarians were markedly superior fighters to civilised Romans, and as a result consistently reduces the size of their forces, while inflating the numbers in Caesar's army

  15 Caesar, BG 2. 5-7.

  16 For Sulla's use of trenches to protect his flanks see Frontinus, Strategemata 2. 3. 17.

  17 Caesar, BG 2. 8-11.

  18 Caesar, BG 2. 11-13.

  19 Caesar, BG 2. 13-15.

  20 Caesar, BG 2. 16-18, cf. 28 on the strength of the Nervii at the battle.

  21 For the possible significance of the site see Rawlings (1998), pp. 176-177; for the suggestion of Maubeuge see Rice Holmes (1911), p. 76.

  2
2 Caesar, BG 2. 19; cf. Rice Holmes (1911), p. 77 for Napoleon's comments; on marching camps see Goldsworthy (1996), pp.111-113.

  23 Caesar, BG 2. 20; on delays before battle see Goldsworthy (1996), pp. 143-145.

  24 Caesar, BG 2. 20-24.

  25 Caesar, BG 2. 25.

  26 See Goldsworthy (1996), pp. 154-163, esp. 160-161, and (2003), pp. 155, 176, 195 (or 2004 edn, pp. 175, 198, 219); on the nature of combat see Goldsworthy (1996), pp. 191-227.

  27 Caesar, BG 2. 27-28.

  28 Caesar, BG 2. 29-32.

  29 Caesar, BG 2. 33; on his reluctance to let soldiers loose in a town during the hours of darkness see BC 1. 21, 2. 12, African War 3; on ritual offerings see BG 6. 17, Suetonius, Caesar 54. 2.

  30 Caesar, BG 2. 35, Dio 39. 25. 1-2, cf. M. Gelzer, Caesar (1968), pp. 116-118.

  XII Politics and War: The Conference of Luca

  1 Cicero, ad Quintum Fratrem 2. 3. 3-4.

  2 Cicero, de provinciis consularibus 25.

  3 Publius and Claudia in the First Punic War see Livy, Pers. 19, Cicero, de natura deorum 2. 7, Florus 1. 19. 29, Suetonius, Tiberius 2. 3, Gellius, NA 10. 6.

  4 Plutarch, Lucullus 34, 38, Cicero, pro Milone 73; for a discussion of the family's position see E. Gruen, The Last Generation of the Roman Republic (1974), pp. 97-100; on the identity of Lesbia see Apuleius, Apologia 10.

  5 Dio 38. 12-13, see also M. Gelzer, Caesar (1968), pp. 96-99, G. Rickman, The Corn Supply of Ancient Rome (1979), pp. 104-119.

  6 Plutarch, Cicero 30-32, Cato the Younger 34-40, see also D. Stockton, Cicero (1971), pp. 167-193, R. Seager, Pompey the Great (2002), pp. 101-103.

  7 Plutarch, Cicero 33-34, Seager (2002), 103-109.

  8 Cicero, pro Sestio 71, de provinciis consularibus 43, In Pisonem 80, ad Fam. 1. 9. 9; on Pompey and the Egyptian command see especially Cicero, ad Fam. 1. 1-9; see also Seager (2002), pp. 107-109, Gelzer (1968), pp. 117-119.

  9 Cicero, ad Quintum Fratrem 2. 3. 2.

  10 For Ahenobarbus see Cicero, ad Att. 4. 8b; for the Campanian land see Cicero, ad Quintum Fratrem 2. 1. 1, 6. 1, ad Fam. 1. 9. 8.

  11 Suetonius, Caesar 24. 1.