Jacksonland: A Great American Land Grab
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“We are enjoined by every duty” Clay, Address Delivered to the Colonization Society of Kentucky, p. 4.
“The distinguished orator of the West” Lumpkin, Removal of the Cherokees from Georgia, p. 73.
“Where do you find one solitary opponent” Ibid., p. 74.
“We … hope yet to have a full account” Niles’ Weekly Register, June 5, 1830, vol. 38, p. 268.
“Those who were friends of the administration” Ibid.
102 votes in favor and 97 against American State Papers, Journal of the House of Representatives 1829–30, May 26, 1830, p. 730.
“After the passage of the Indian bill”Niles’ Weekly Register, June 5, 1830, vol. 38, p. 268.
Chapter Twenty-four: Judicial
“laborious, highly intelligent, Judicious” Evarts to Ross, September 17, 1825, Moulton, Papers of Chief John Ross, vol. 1, p. 107.
“It is the first Cherokee book ever published” Elias Boudinot to Herman and Flora Gold Vaill, January 23, 1829, collected in Gaul, To Marry an Indian, pp. 161–62.
Their lives began to change on March 13, 1831 White, “Memorial of Rev. Samuel Austin Worcester,” p. 281.
He was also a U.S. official … postmaster at New Echota Berutti, “Cherokee Cases,” p. 303.
accuse them of “criminal” conduct So Gilmer said to Rev. John Thompson, May 16, 1831. Kilpatrick and Kilpatrick, New Echota Letters, p. 106.
“punishment which will certainly follow your further residence” Ibid.
His wife was ill Ibid., p. 107.
“I cheerfully acknowledge” … no “consciousness of guilt” Worcester to Gilmer, June 10, 1831, reprinted in Cherokee Phoenix, ibid., p. 109.
“that freedom in the expression of opinion … until I am forcibly removed” Ibid., p. 111.
So the Georgia Guard … arrested him on July 15, 1831 Worcester to Cherokee Phoenix, July 25, 1831, ibid., p. 101. Also, Marshall et al., Worcester v. Georgia, p. 4.
“only two or three individuals offered us any insult” Worcester to Cherokee Phoenix, July 25, 1831, Kilpatrick and Kilpatrick New Echota Letters, p. 101.
Theodore Frelinghuysen and … Daniel Webster Wirt to Judge Carr, June 21, 1830, as reproduced in Kennedy, Memoirs of the Life of William Wirt, vol. 2, p. 254.
“I received your speech on the removal of the Indians” Marshall to Frelinghuysen, May 27, 1830, Johnson et al., Papers of John Marshall, vol. 11, p. 374.
“insist upon its distribution among the Indians at large” Berrien to Jackson, June 25, 1830, Owsley et al., Papers of Andrew Jackson, vol. 8, p. 392.
spreading a few cents to each individual Cherokee John Howard Payne believed the payment to each Cherokee would be “less than half a dollar” per year. Anderson et al., Payne-Butrick Papers, vol. 2, p. 159.
Ross sent it directly to his underpaid defense team One example is in Ross to Wirt, May 10, 1831, Papers of Chief John Ross, vol. 1, p. 220.
“Give me liberty or give me death” A persuasive argument that Wirt invented this and other phrases and attributed them to Henry without evidence is contained in Raphael, Founding Myths, pp. 145–56.
“I have used all the persuasive means in my power” Jackson to William B. Lewis, August 25, 1830, Owsley et al., Papers of Andrew Jackson, vol. 8, p. 501.
“personally had strong doubts” Wirt to Ross, September 22, 1830. A summary is in Moulton, Papers of Chief John Ross, vol. 1, p. 199.
Georgia made the case moot by having Tassel hanged Berutti, “Cherokee Cases,” p. 299.
“Mr. Lavender and myself are threatened” Ross to Wirt, January 1, 1831, Moulton, Papers of Chief John Ross, vol. 1, pp. 209–10.
repugnant to the constitution … leave the issue to Providence” Peters, ed., The Case of the Cherokee Nation against the State of Georgia, p. 66.
Marshall felt that he could not push the issue too far Berutti, “Cherokee Cases,” p. 300.
“The denial of the injunction … claims of the President” Ross to the Cherokees, April 14, 1831, Moulton, Papers of Chief John Ross, vol. 1, p. 217.
“tattlers and intriguers” Ibid.
Accompanied by Cherokee leader George Lowrey and … Major Ridge Wilkins, Cherokee Tragedy, pp. 217–18.
“experiment” of Marshall’s strategy Wirt to Ross, July 18, 1831. A summary of the letter is contained in Moulton, Papers of Chief John Ross, pp. 221–22.
four years “at hard labor” Marshall et al., Worcester v. Georgia, p. 6.
making cabinets at the state prison at Milledgeville Miles, “After John Marshall’s Decision,” p. 526.
“studiously avoided calling on us to assist in that work” Worcester to Cherokee Phoenix, October 29, 1832, Kilpatrick and Kilpatrick, New Echota Letters, p. 115.
“Should the legislature of Georgia repeal” Ross to William Wirt, October 7, 1831, Moulton, Papers of Chief John Ross, vol. 1, p. 224.
William Wirt appealed … February 20, 1832 Marshall et al., Worcester v. Georgia, p. 6.
“This duty, however unpleasant, cannot be avoided” Ibid., p. 9.
“America, separated from Europe” Ibid., p. 10.
“who could not write, and most probably could not read” Ibid., p. 15.
“the actual state of things” Ibid., p. 10.
“these powerful considerations … We think they will” Ibid., p. 20.
Chapter Twenty-five: Executive
“every Indian knows now that he stands upon a solid foundation” Elijah Hicks to Cherokee delegation, March 24, 1832, reprinted in Niles’ Weekly Register, May 12, 1832, vol. 42, March–August 1832, p. 201.
“Our adversaries … enemies are seeking places where to hide their heads” Ross to Cherokee delegates, Moulton, Papers of Chief John Ross, vol. 1, p. 241.
“Georgia … has commenced her survey” Cherokee Phoenix, April 21, 1832; reprinted in Niles’ Weekly Register, May 12, 1832, vol. 42, March–August 1832, p. 201.
“It was [McLean’s] firm belief … unburden itself by a removal” Ross to Wirt, June 8, 1832, Moulton, Papers of Chief John Ross, vol. 1, p. 245.
Only after the Georgia courts failed would Marshall be in a position Miles, “After John Marshall’s Decision,” pp. 528–29, 537.
“and the President refuses to enforce” Meacham, American Lion, p. 204.
“Justice Marshall has made his decision; now let him enforce it” The claim is found in Greeley, American Conflict, p. 106.
“would not aid” “sportively said in private conversation” Miles, “After John Marshall’s Decision,” pp. 528–29, 537.
“The decision of the Supreme Court has fell still born” Jackson to Coffee, April 7, 1832, Bassett, ed., Correspondence of Andrew Jackson, vol. IV, pp. 429–31.
sent Ridge away in “despair” Jackson to Coffee, April 9, 1832, quoted in Wilkins, Cherokee Tragedy, p. 229.
“Other important considerations” Cass to Lumpkin, December 24, 1832, cited in Miles, “After John Marshall’s Decision,” p. 537.
the governor had dined with the wives of Worcester and Butler Ibid., p. 535.
“considerations of a public nature” Ibid., p. 540.
Governor Lumpkin freed the missionaries on January 14, 1833 Ibid., p. 541.
negotiate a generous treaty Ibid., pp. 529–30.
Elisha Chester … infuriated John Ross Ross to Wirt, June 8, 1832, Moulton, Papers of Chief John Ross, vol. 1, p. 244.
“best good” Miles, “After John Marshall’s Decision,” p. 539.
“While the Union lasts” Peterson, The Great Triumvirate, p. 178.
Part Eight: Democracy in America, 1833–1835
Chapter Twenty-six: The Purest Love of Formalities
June 6, 1833 … Jackson became the first president to board a train Stover, History of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, p. 38.
Stephen A. Douglas of Vermont, age twenty, moved to Illinois Quitt, Stephen A. Douglas and Antebellum Democracy, pp. 38–39.
“too insignificant, to make [my] politics an objection” Lincoln,
Speeches and Writings, 1859–1865, p. 164.
personal friends … included politically active Jackson Democrats David Donald, in Lincoln, p. 52, reports that many of Lincoln’s friends, such as a gang of local toughs known as the Clary’s Grove Boys, were Jackson men who “favored Lincoln purely on personal grounds.”
“After I had retired to my room” Van Buren, Autobiography, p. 293.
Men raised giant hickory poles Parton, Life of Andrew Jackson, vol. 3, p. 424.
“nearly a mile long” M. Chevalier, a French traveler, quoted in ibid., p. 425.
unprecedented fall tour from the Hermitage to Washington Meacham, American Lion, pp. 218–19.
“aristocratic monopoly” Stiles, First Tycoon, p. 101.
offering an extortion payment of $100,000 Ibid., p. 103.
“Birth, condition, or profession” Tocqueville, Democracy in America, p. 279.
“They call for equality in freedom” Ibid., p. 203.
“I do not think that there is any other country” Ibid., p. 59.
“singular mildness … an evil which does not affect them” Ibid., p. 203.
“By contrast … respect for the laws of humanity would be impossible” Ibid., p. 391.
Lincoln volunteered … mosquitoes: An account of his 1848 speech spells it “musquetoes.” Donald, Lincoln, p. 45.
He was driven in a carriage “The President’s Visit,” Niles’ Weekly Register, June 15, 1833, vol. 44, p. 256.
on June 6, 1833, he sat through a performance Trask, Black Hawk, p. 300.
the Indian leader chatted with … the Great Father of the nation Ibid.
“You will see” … “my people have suffered a great deal” “The President’s Visit,” Niles’ Weekly Register, June 15, 1833, vol. 44, p. 256.
Black Hawk had to be taken out of the center city Ibid.
“Long before the climax was reached” Cited in Lepore, In the Name of War, p. 202.
Chapter Twenty-seven: I Have the Right to Address You
“speculating tribe … anihilation” Jackson to William Berkeley Lewis, August 25, 1830, Moulton, Papers of Andrew Jackson, vol. 8, pp. 500–501.
The president offered $2.5 million Moulton, John Ross, Cherokee Chief, p. 51.
Jackson was offering something close to 50 cents Wiley Thompson to Lewis Cass, February 2, 1833. Senate Document 512, no. 247, vol. 4, p. 68.
United States should spend its money relocating white settlersstrong>: Ross letter in the American State Papers, Brown’s Hotel, Washington City, January 28, 1833. Ibid., p. 65.
“The usual scenes which our afflicted people experience” John Ridge to Ross, quoted in Moulton, John Ross, Cherokee Chief, p. 51.
Ross had relied on the younger man John Ridge to Ross, April 3, 1832, Moulton, Papers of Chief John Ross, vol. 1, p. 241.
“Were I to continue as editor”: Boudinot to Ross, August 1, 1832, ibid., pp. 247–48.
“the evil effects of their intercourse” Speech reprinted in Gabriel, Elias Boudinot, pp. 106–7.
“almost a dreary waste” Boudinot, quoted in Smith, American Betrayal, p. 183.
“moral degradation,” yet.it seemed that Ross worried only about money Smith, An American Betrayal, is particularly useful on this point, pp. 142–43.
Men such as Boudinot admitted: Ibid., p. 143.
“donned feathered headdresses” Woodward, The Cherokees, p. 173.
soon to be known as the Whigs The Whig label emerged in the spring of 1834. Howe, What Hath God Wrought, p. 390.
Chapter Twenty-eight: We Are Yet Your Friends
“The undersigned Principal Chief” Ross to Jackson, February 3, 1834, Andrew Jackson Papers, 1775–1874, reel 44.
Jackson would see them at noon on February 5 Endorsement on Ross letter requesting the appointment, February 3, 1834, Moulton, Papers of Chief John Ross, vol. 1, p. 273.
about ten blocks up Pennsylvania Avenue The Indian Queen was at 600 Pennsylvania Avenue NW, ten blocks from the White House at 1600 Pennsylvania. Photograph Record, “Sketch of Indian Queen Hotel,” Washington Historical Society online archive.
“quite unwell, with pain in my left breast & shoulder” Jackson to Andrew Jackson Jr., February 5, 1834, Andrew Jackson Papers 1775–1874, reel 44.
“be of great use in accomplishing the objects of the government” William Carroll to Cass, February 2, 1834, Cherokee Agency East Papers, National Archives, reel 74.
“Twenty years have now elapsed” All text of this letter from Ross to Jackson, March 28, 1834, Moulton, Papers of Chief John Ross, vol. 1, p. 284.
a disapproving note came from an aide Moulton, John Ross, Cherokee Chief, p. 55.
Chapter Twenty-nine: Should They Be Satisfied with the Character of That Country
A branch of the trail also led to Jacksonville The trail is mapped in Mahon, History of the Second Seminole War, pp. 390–91.
fighting the war against the Creeks in 1813–14 Ibid., p. 87.
cast his vote in favor of the Indian Removal Act House Journal, 21st Cong., 1st Sess., May 26, 1830, from American State Papers, p. 723.
“deep regret” at the “sudden and unaccountable” resistance Thompson to Cass, February 2, 1833, Senate Document 512, no. 247, p. 68.
$1,500 a year Mahon, History of the Second Seminole War, p. 87.
“should they be satisfied with the character of that country” Kappler, “Treaty with the Seminole, May 9, 1832,” Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties, vol. 2, p. 344. http://digital.library.okstate.edu/kappler/Vol2/treaties/sem0344.htm; also Mahon, History of the Second Seminole War, p. 64.
Seminole leaders … apparently illiterate, began denying The treaty text showed all fifteen men made X marks, not signatures, and even one of the interpreters signed with an X mark. Mahon, History of the Second Seminole War, pp. 75–76.
descendants of generations of migrants, survivors, and refugees The origins of the Seminoles are discussed in detail in ibid., chap. 1, and Wright, Creeks and Seminoles.
Thompson’s scalp was cut into pieces Mahon, History of the Second Seminole War, p. 104.
the Seminoles opened fire The attack on Dade’s force is described in Roberts, “The Dade Massacre,” pp. 123–28.
The number of U.S. military deaths Mahon, History of the Second Seminole War, p. 325. Based on the population of the day, 1,535 military deaths amounted to roughly 1 out of every 8,000 Americans; the Iraq War U.S. military death toll of about 4,400, out of a far larger population, amounted to roughly 1 out of every 70,000 Americans.
Part Nine: Tears, 1835–1838
Chapter Thirty: Five Millions of Dollars
he was by then demanding $20 million Moulton, John Ross, Cherokee Chief, p. 60.
they took up residence in a two-room cabin Undated Payne letter copied in collection of Museum of the Cherokee Indian, part of the Hargrett Collection, p. 1.
the Georgia Guard reached New Echota first Moulton, John Ross, Cherokee Chief, p. 65.
about fifteen hundred pieces of old metal type This according to David Gomez, the site manager of the New Echota historic site, September 24, 2014.
“You are to consider yourself a prisoner” John Howard Payne’s story from Knoxville Register, December 2, 1835, reprinted in Battey, History of Rome and Floyd County, pp. 55–74.
“Well, gentlemen, I shall not resist” Ibid.
“A wild storm arose” … “Home, Sweet Home” Ibid., p. 59.
“to raise an insurrection among the negroes, who are to join the Indians” Ibid., p. 65.
“of middle size—rather under than over … represented to be” Undated Payne letter copied in collection of Museum of the Cherokee Indian, part of the Hargrett Collection, pp. 1–2.
“mob extraordinary” Niles’ Weekly Register, January 2, 1836.
governor of Tennessee wrote his counterpart Letter from Tennessee governor N. Cannon, reprinted in Niles’ Weekly Register, January 16, 1836.
“common street rumor” Ibid., January 2, 1836, p. 308.
&
nbsp; Major Benjamin F. Currey … more extreme measures Valliere, “Benjamin Currey, Tennessean Among the Cherokees,” p. 252.
member “of the whig party, and rumor makes him an abolitionist” Currey letter to the Federal Union, reprinted in Niles’ Weekly Register, January 30, 1836.
“the native Indian has but little part” Moulton, John Ross, Cherokee Chief, p. 47.
388 in favor … only one single Cherokee voting to pay individuals Ibid., p. 59.
regarding Ross as the “devil” Ibid.
Ross won, 2,225–114 Ibid., p. 64.
“The strange results of this council” Currey letter reprinted in Niles’ Weekly Register, December 1, 1835, vol. 49, p. 375.
the roof caught fire Wilkins, Cherokee Tragedy, p. 276.
eighty-two men were counted Moulton, John Ross, Cherokee Chief, p. 74.
“The Georgians have shown a grasping spirit” Wilkins, Cherokee Tragedy, p. 286.
“If one hundred persons are ignorant … moral degradation” Boudinot quoted in Smith, American Betrayal, p. 143.
“five millions of dollars” Treaty of New Echota, Kappler, Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties, p. 439.
compensation for houses and fences and other improvements on the land Treaty of New Echota, article 15, includes a phrase saying that the $5 million would be paid only “after deducting the amount which shall be actually expended for the payment for improvements, ferries, claims, for spoliations, removal subsistence and debts and claims.” Ibid., p. 446.
Chapter Thirty-one: The War Department Does Not Understand These People
hair elaborately combed forward A portrait of Wool is reprinted in Hauptman, “General John E. Wool in Cherokee Country,” p. 5.
In the early days he met with Major Ridge Ibid., p. 8.
arrested the principal chief Ibid., p. 14.
“The War Department does not understand these people” Wool to C. A. Harris, August 27, 1836, American State Papers, Military Affairs, vol. 7, House of Representatives, 25th Cong., 1st Sess., p. 552.
“I advised [Ross], however, to be careful” Ibid., p. 553.
“huts for the accommodation of strangers … huts, booths and stores” Visitor to 1838 council meeting quoted in Butler, “Red Clay Council Ground,” p. 147.