53. On the colonial deployment of automatic weapons, see John Ellis, The Social History of the Machine Gun (London: Pimlico, 1993), 79–110.
CHAPTER TWO
1. Henry Petroski, To Engineer Is Human: The Role of Failure in Successful Design (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1985), and Engineers of Dreams: Great Bridge Builders and the Spanning of America (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1995).
2. J. Bostock, “Evolutionary Approaches to Infant Care,” Lancet, vol. 1, no. 1038 (1962), 1033–35; cited in Katherine A. Dettwyler and Claudia Fishman, “Infant Feeding Practices and Growth,” Annual Review of Anthropology, vol. 21 (1992), 180.
3. Huntly Collins, “Low-Tech Breast-Feeding Aid,” Philadelphia Inquirer, May 24, 1999; Sue Armstrong, “Choice Would Be a Fine Thing: An Increasingly Urban Lifestyle Is Encouraging Women to Abandon Breast-Feeding,” New Scientist, vol. 148, no. 1998 (October 7, 1995), 44ff.
4. Valerie A. Fildes, Breasts, Bottles and Babies (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1986), 17–36, 45–52, 399–401; Valérie Lastinger, “Re-Defining Motherhood: Breast-Feeding and the French Enlightenment,” Women’s Studies, vol. 25, no. 6 (1996), 603–17; Joan Sherwood, “The Milk Factor: The Ideology of Breast-feeding and Post-partum Illnesses, 1750–1850,” Canadian Bulletin of the History of Medicine, vol. 10 (1993), 25–47; Sally McMillen, “Mothers’ Sacred Duty: Breast-Feeding Patterns Among Middle- and Upper-Class Women in the Antebellum South,” Journal of Southern History, vol. 51, no. 3 (August 1985), 333–56.
5. Fildes, Breasts, 262–65.
6. Ibid., 345; Naomi Baumslag and Dia L. Michels, Milk, Money, and Madness: The Culture and Politics of Breastfeeding (Westport, Conn.: Bergin & Garvey, 1995), 135–38; M. Michelle Jarrett, “‘An Act of Flagrant Rebellion Against Nature,’” Winterthur Portfolio, vol. 30, no. 4 (Winter 1995), 279–88; Christina Hardyment, Dream Babies: Child Care from Locke to Spock (London: Jonathan Cape, 1983), 50–51; Anita Golo, “Infant Feeders Worth Collecting,” San Diego Union-Tribune, June 10, 1984.
7. Vern L. Bullough, “Bottle Feeding: An Amplification,” Bulletin of the History of Medicine, vol. 55, no. 2 (Summer 1981), 257–59; Baumslag and Michels, Milk, 135–38; Hardyment, Dream Babies, 50–51; Golo, “Infant Feeders”; Gabrielle Palmer, The Politics of Breastfeeding (London: Pandora, 1988), 174.
8. Dr. Darroll Erickson, telephone interview, June 9, 1999; James B. Meadow, “Time in a Bottle,” Rocky Mountain News, March 6, 1997; Debra Lee Baldwin, “We’ve Come a Long Way, Baby,” San Diego Union-Tribune, October 18, 1989; William S. Walbridge, American Bottles Old and New (Toledo: n.p., 1920), 55–72; Diane Ostrander, A Guide to American Nursing Bottles, 2nd ed. (York, Pa.: ACIF Publications, 1992), C-VI to C-XI, 171–72.
9. Patricia Harris and David Lyon, “The Power of Plastic,” Boston Globe Magazine, November 27, 1988, 22ff.; Dawn Clayton and Anne Maier, “For Babies Who Want to Get a Grip …,” People, March 3, 1986, 41–42; Baumslag and Michels, Milk, 136.
10. Clayton and Maier, “For Babies,” 41–42; Baumslag and Michels, Milk, 80–83; Derrick B. Jelliffe and E. F. Patrice Jelliffe, Human Milk in the Modern World (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1978), 205.
11. Joy Melnikov and Joan M. Bedinghaus, “Management of Common Breastfeeding Problems,” Journal of Family Practice, vol. 39, no. 1 (July 1994), 56ff.; The Womanly Art of Breastfeeding, 5th ed. (New York: Plume Books, 1991), 432; Huguette Rugeon-o’Brien et al., “Nutritive and Nonnutrivive Sucking Habits: A Review,” Journal of Dentistry for Children, vol. 63, no. 5 (September—October 1996), 321–27.
12. Patricia Stuart-Macadam, “Biocultural Perspectives on Breastfeeding,” in Patricia Stuart-Macadam and Katherine A. Dettwyler, eds., Breastfeeding: Biocultural Perspectives (New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1995), 16–17; Lisa Cloat, “Caring for Tiny Teeth: The Very Bottle That Nourishes a Child Can Destroy Teeth,” Peoria Journal-Star, February 10, 1999.
13. Cited in Jelliffe and Jelliffe, Human Milk, 209; Dettwyler and Fishman, “Infant Feeding Practices,” 181; Max Kaufman, “What’s in Infant Formula?” Washington Post, June 1, 1999.
14. Randolph M. Nesse and George C. Williams, Why We Get Sick: The New Science of Darwinian Medicine (New York: Times Books, 1994), 202; Fildes, Breasts, 278–79; Janet Golden, A Social History of Wet Nursing in America: From Breast to Bottle (Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 132; P. J. Atkins, “Sophistication Detected: Or, the Adulteration of the Milk Supply, 1850–1914,” Social History, vol. 16, no. 3 (October 1991), 317–37.
15. T. P. Mepham, “‘Humanizing’ Milk: The Formulation of Artificial Feeds for Infants (1850–1910),” Medical History, vol. 37, no. 3 (July 1993), 225–49; William H. Brock, Justus von Liebig: The Chemical Gatekeeper (Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 243–45.
16. Brock, Justus von Liebig, 245–49; Palmer, Politics of Breastfeeding, 163–65; Carolyn Crowley Hughes, “The Man Who Invented Elsie, the Borden Cow,” Smithsonian, vol. 30, no. 6 (September 1999), 32–33.
17. Palmer, Politics of Breastfeeding, 163–65; Rima D. Apple, Mothers and Medicine: A Social History of Infant Feeding, 1890–1950 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1987), 8–13.
18. Apple, Mothers, 23–34; Palmer, Politics of Breastfeeding, 165–66; P. J. Atkins, “White Poison? The Social Consequences of Milk Consumption, 1850–1930,” Social History of Medicine, vol. 5, no. 2 (August 1992), 207–27; Golden, Wet Nursing, 132–33.
19. Apple, Mothers, 159–60, 173–76; Jelliffe and Jelliffe, Human Milk, 191.
20. Jonas Frykman and Orvar Löfgren, Building Cultures: A Historical Anthropology of Middle-Class Life, trans. Alan Crozier (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1987), 232; Jelliffe and Jelliffe, Human Milk, 188–93; Apple, Mothers, 152–57.
21. Apple, Mothers, 169–72; Jelliffe and Jelliffe, Human Milk, 195–99.
22. “Food Processing,” Encyclopaedia Britannica, 15th ed. (1998), vol. 19, 386; Jelliffe and Jelliffe, Human Milk, 211–40; Baumslag and Michels, Milk, 147–50.
23. Baumslag and Michels, Milk, 152–45; Palmer, Politics of Breastfeeding, 186— 88; Jelliffe and Jelliffe, Human Milk, 234, 271–91.
24. Jelliffe and Jelliffe, Human Milk, 231; Baumslag and Michels, Milk, 154–88.
25. “Breastfeeding and the Use of Human Milk,”Pediatrics, vol. 100, no.6 (December 1997), 1035–39; Natalie Angier,Woman: An Intimate Geography(Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1999), 153; Jack Newman, “How Breast Milk Protects Newborns,” Scientific American, vol. 273, no. 6 (December 1995), 76–79; Erickson, personal communication, June 9, 1999; Allan S. Cunningham, “Breastfeeding: Adaptive Behavior for Child Health and Longevity,” in Stuart-Macadam and Dettwyler, eds., Breastfeeding, 244–45.
26. Cunningham, “Adaptive Behavior,” 253–55; L. J. Horwood and D. M. Fergusson, “Breastfeeding and Later Cognitive and Academic Outcomes,” Pediatrics, vol. 101, no. 1 (January 1998), E9; A. Lucas et al., “Breast Milk and Subsequent Intelligence Quotient in Children Born Preterm,” Lancet, vol. 339, no. 8788 (February 1, 1992), 261–64; for recent criticism of the intelligence studies, see Shari Roan, “Analysis Questions Link Between Breast Milk, IQ,” Los Angeles Times, June 10, 2002.
27. Alan Lucas, “Programming by Early Nutrition: An Experimental Approach,” Journal of Nutrition, vol. 128, no. 2 (February 1998), 401ff.
28. Cunningham, “Adaptive Behavior,” 249–55; W. H. Oddy et al., “Association Between Breast Feeding and Asthma in 6 Year Old Children,” British Medical Journal, vol. 319, no. 7213 (September 25, 1999), 815–19.
29. Womanly Art of Breastfeeding, 72–73, 161–75.
30. Katherine A. Dettwyler, “A Time to Wean: The Hominid Blueprint for the Natural Age of Weaning in Modern Human Populations,” in Stuart-Macadam and Dettwyler, eds., Breastfeeding, 39–74; Al Podgorski and Richard A. Chapman, “Breastfeeding: Babies, Yes. But Toddlers and Even Older Kids Too?” Chicago Sun-Times, September 26, 1999.
31. Jo L. Freudenheim, “Lactation History and Breast Cancer Risk,” American Journal of
Epidemiology, vol. 148, no. 11 (December 1, 1997), 932–38; Marc S. Micozzi, “Breast Cancer, Reproductive Biology, and Breastfeeding,” in Stuart-Macadam and Dettwyler, eds., Breastfeeding, 347–84; Patricia Stuart-Macadam, “Biocultural Perspectives on Breastfeeding,” in ibid., 11; Palmer, Politics of Breastfeeding, 72–73; Jelliffe and Jelliffe, Human Milk, 115–17.
32. Womanly Art, 123; Sara A. Quandt, “Sociocultural Aspects of the Lactation Process,” in Stuart-Macadam and Dettwyler, eds., Breastfeeding, 127–43; Peter T. Ellison, “Breastfeeding, Fertility, and Maternal Condition,” in ibid., 305–45; Jelliffe and Jelliffe, Human Milk, 117–19.
33. Womanly Art of Breastfeeding, 161–73; Baumslag and Michels, Milk, 31–32, 23–26; Lastinger, “Re-Defining Motherhood,” 613; Marylynn Salmon, “The Cultural Significance of Breastfeeding and Infant Care in Early Modern England and America,” Journal of Social History, vol. 28, no. 2 (Winter 1994), 247–69.
34. Alan S. Ryan, “The Resurgence of Breastfeeding in the United States,” Pediatrics, vol. 99, no. 4 (April 1997), E12—E16; Marc Kaufman, “What’s in Infant Formula?” Washington Post, June 1, 1999.
35. Kaufman, “Infant Formula,” 13; Marc Kaufman, “Baby Formula Fight Puts Fat Under Fire,” Washington Post, June 1, 1999.
36. Karen Goldberg Goff, “To Baby’s Health,” Washington Times, August 18, 2002; Isadora B. Steylin, “Infant Formula: Second Best but Good Enough,” FDA Consumer, vol. 30, no. 5 (June 1996), 17–20.
37. Alan Lucas, letter, British Medical Journal, vol. 317, no. 7174 (August 1, 1998), 337–38; Glen E. Mott et al., “Programming of Cholesterol Metabolism by Breast or Formula Feeding,” in The Childhood Environment and Adult Disease (Chichester, Eng.: John Wiley & Sons, 1991), 56–76; Golden, Wet Nursing, 206; Janet Raloff, “Breast Milk: A Leading Source of PCBs,” Science News, vol. 152, no. 22 (November 29, 1997), 344.
38. Jill Nelson, “Mr. Mom Finally Gets It All,” Washington Post, September 27, 1987.
39. On the technology and politics of contemporary breast-feeding, see Linda M. Blum, At the Breast: Ideologies of Breastfeeding and Motherhood in the Contemporary United States (Boston: Beacon Books, 1999); for a new feminist interpretation, see Alison Bartlett, “Breastfeeding as Headwork: Corporeal Feminism and Meanings for Breastfeeding,” Women’s Studies International Forum, vol. 25, no. 3 (May—June 2002), 373–82.
40. Terence Chea, “Martek to Feed Market for Fortified Formula; Do Additives Make Babies Smarter? Studies Differ,” Washington Post, January 24, 2002; Eric Nagourney, “Vital Signs: Nutrition, Extra Fortification for Baby Formulas,” New York Times, January 29, 2002; Nicholas B. Kristof, “Interview with a Humanoid,” New York Times, July 23, 2002.
CHAPTER THREE
1. William Rossi, “Back to Basics—Again and Again,” Footwear News, vol. 54, no. 36 (September 7, 1998), 24; Eunice Wilson, A History of Shoe Fashions (London: Pitman, 1974), 36–37; Harold E. Driver and William C. Massey, Comparative Studies of North American Indians (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1957) (= Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, n.s. vol. 47, part 2); Alika Podolinsky Webber, North American Indian and Eskimo Footwear: A Typology and Glossary (Toronto: Bata Shoe Museum, 1989).
2. Phillip Nutt, electronic mail to author, August 20, 2002; David Foster Wallace, “Shipping Out,” Harper’s, vol. 292, no. 1748 (January 1996), 33; Brian Dibble, “Synonyms for Zori,” American Speech, vol. 54, no. 1 (Spring 1979), 79.
3. “Put Your Best Foot Forward,” Current Health 2, vol. 27, no. 4 (December 1997), 28–29; Todd R. Olson and Michael R. Seidel, “The Evolutionary Basis of Some Clinical Disorders of the Human Foot: A Comparative Survey of the Living Primates,” Foot and Ankle, vol. 3, no. 6 (May—June 1983), 322–41; Frank R. Wilson, The Hand (New York: Pantheon Books, 1998), 318n2; Félix Regnault, “Le Pied Préhensile chez l’Homme,” Bulletins et Mémoires (Société Anthropologique de Paris), 5th ser., vol. 10 (1909), 41–42.
4. William A. Rossi, “The Foot’s Arches: Myth vs. Fact: Do Arch Inserts Play the Best Supporting Role?” Footwear News, vol. 52, no. 20 (May 13, 1996), 14; Kelley Ann Hays-Gilpin, Ann Cordy Deegan, and Elizabeth Ann Morris, Prehistoric Sandals from Northeastern Arizona: The Earl H. Morris and Ann Axtell Morris Research, Anthropological Papers of the University of Arizona, 62 (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1998), 38; Earle T. Engle and Dudley J. Morton, “Notes on Foot Disorder Among Natives of the Belgian Congo,” Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, vol. 13 (April 1931), 311–18; Shanghai data from Rossi, above.
5. “Discalced Orders,” New Catholic Encyclopedia (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967), vol. 4, 893; Friedrich Engels, The Condition of the Working Class in England, trans. and ed. W. O. Henderson and W. H. Chaloner (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1968), 80; Richard Keith Frazine, The Barefoot Hiker (Berkeley: Ten Speed Press, 1993), 15–16; David Holmstrom, “Hiking Shoes Are Getting the Boot,” Christian Science Monitor, June 9, 1997, 15.
6. Frazine, Barefoot Hiker, 31–33; Liz Halloran, “Shoeless in the Forest, Hikers Discover a World of Unexpected Sensations,” reprinted in ibid., 90–91; David Holmstrom, “Hiking Shoes,” 15.
7. M. Douglas Baker and Randi E. Bell, “The Role of Footwear in Childhood Injuries,” Pediatric Emergency Care, vol. 7, no. 6 (December 1991), 353–55. Sneakers and other rough-soled shoes, worn with socks, are the best preparation against loss of footing, according to the study.
8. Sander Gilman, “The Jewish Foot: A Foot-Note to the Jewish Body,” in Sander Gilman, The Jew’s Body (New York: Routledge, 1991), 38–59; Patricia Vertinsky, “Body Matters,” in Nobert Finzsch and Dietmar Schirmer, eds., Identity and Intolerance: Nationalism, Racism, and Xenophobia in Germany and the United States (Washington, D.C.: German Historical Institute, 1998), 331–57; Patricia Vertinsky: “The ‘Racial’ Body and the Anatomy of Difference: Anti-Semitism, Physical Culture, and the Jew’s Foot,” Sport Science Review, vol. 4, no. 1 (January 1995), 38–59; Lynn T. Staheli, “Shoes for Children: A Review,” Pediatrics, vol. 88, no. 2 (August 1991), 371–75; William A. Rossi, “Dr. Scholl: From Humble Beginnings,” Footwear News, vol. 54, no. 27 (July 6, 1998), 14; Rossi, “Foot’s Arches,” 14.
9. David King, “The Way We Were: World War II Presented Baseball with Its Ultimate Challenge,” Houston Chronicle, July 23, 1995; Howard Seiden, “Flat Feet Don’t Automatically Mean Bad Feet,” Montreal Gazette, October 17, 1992; Elisabeth Rosenthal, “The Maligned Flat Foot: Some See an Advantage,” New York Times, November 22, 1990; David N. Cowan et al., “Foot Morphologic Characteristics and Risk of Exercise-Related Injury,” Archives of Family Medicine, vol. 2, no. 7 (July 1993), 773–77 (paper originally presented in 1989).
10. E. E. Bleck, “The Shoeing of Children: Sham or Science?” Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, vol. 13, no. 2 (April 1971), 188–95; Udaya Bahaskara Rao and Benjamin Joseph, “The Influence of Footwear on the Prevalence of Flat Feet,” Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, vol. 74-B, no. 4 (July 1992), 525–27; Staheli, “Shoes for Children,” 371–75.
11. “White Man’s Burden,” Economist, May 7, 1983, 104; Thomas V. DiBacco, “Hookworm’s Strange History: How a Yankee’s Research Saved the South,” Washington Post, June 30, 1992; Adrian Gwin, “Looking Back: No Shoes Serves This Barefoot Fan,” Charleston Daily Mail, June 7, 1997; Asa C. Chandler, Hookworm Disease: Its Distribution, Biology, Epidemiology, Pathology, Treatment and Control (New York: Macmillan, 1929), 174–75, 208–11, 380–83; John Ettling, The Germ of Laziness (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1981), 130; Mary A. Dempsey, “Henry Ford’s Amazonian Suburbia,” Américas (English edition), vol. 48, no. 2 (March—April 1996), 49. Shoes as well as bare feet can transmit lethal infections. A sixty-one-year-old English tourist, who remained carefully shod during a brief holiday in Thailand, stepped on a thorn while gardening on the day after his return, and thereby injected into his heel the bacillus Burkholderia pseudomallei, which had probably colonized his shoes and feet at his Thai resort. Released after two weeks of intravenou
s antibiotics, he died three months later of a ruptured abdominal aorta. See James K. Torrens et al., “A Deadly Thorn: A Case of Imported Melioidosis,” Lancet, vol. 353, no. 9157 (March 20, 1999), 1016.
12. Lam Sim-Fook and A. B. Hodgson, “Foot Forms Among the Non-Shoe[sic] and Shoe-Wearing Chinese Population,” Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, vol. 40-A, no. 5 (October 1958), 1058–62.
13. William C. Hayes, The Scepter of Egypt: A Background for the Study of the Egyptian Antiquities in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2 vols. (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1990), vol. 2, 188; Laurie Lawlor, Where Will This Shoe Take You? (New York: Walker, 1996), 8–12.
14. B. J. de Lateur et al., “Footwear and Posture: Compensatory Strategies for Heel Height,” American Journal of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, vol. 70, no. 5 (October 1991), 246–54, presents evidence that high-heeled shoes do not increase the lordosis, or curvature, of the spine.
15. Victoria Nelson, My Time in Hawaii: A Polynesian Memoir (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1989), 9–10; Steele F. Stewart, “Footgear—Its History, Uses and Abuses,” Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research, vol. 88 (October 1972), 119–22; K. Ashizawa et al., “Relative Foot Size and Shape to General Body Size in Javanese, Filipinas and Japanese with Special Reference to Habitual Footwear Types,” Annals of Human Biology, vol. 24, no. 2 (1997), 117–29; electronic posting to H-ASIA list, June 14, 1998.
16. Nicholas Wade, “Shoes That Walked the Earth 8,000 Years Ago,” New York Times, July 7, 1998; Heather Pringle, “Eight Millennia of Fashion Footwear,” Science, vol. 281, no. 5373 (July 3, 1998), 23–25; Jenna T. Kuttruff et al., “7500 Years of Prehistoric Footwear from Arnold Research Cave, Missouri,” Science, vol. 281, no. 5373 (July 3, 1998), 72–75; Kathy Kankainen, “Sandal Styles, Materials, and Techniques,” in Kathy Kankainen, ed., Treading in the Past: Sandals of the Anasazi (Salt Lake City: Utah Museum of Natural History in association with the University of Utah Press, 1995), 21–30.
Our Own Devices: How Technology Remakes Humanity Page 37