To Move the World
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15. Kennedy and Khrushchev, Top Secret, 343–344.
16. Norman Cousins, The Improbable Triumvirate: John F. Kennedy, Pope John, Nikita Khrushchev (New York: W. W. Norton, 1972), 37.
17. Beschloss, The Crisis Years, 556.
18. Quoted in Allison and Zelikow, Essence of Decision, 355.
19. Quoted in Thurston Clarke, JFK’s Last Hundred Days (New York: Penguin Press, 2013).
20. Quoted in Cousins, The Improbable Triumvirate, 46.
21. James A. Nathan, “The Heyday of the New Strategy: The Cuban Missile Crisis and the Confirmation of Coercive Diplomacy,” in The Cuban Missile Crisis Revisited, ed. Nathan, 24.
22. Beschloss, The Crisis Years, 570.
23. Ibid., 572.
24. Kennedy and Khrushchev, Top Secret, 314.
25. Ibid., 348–349.
CHAPTER 3: PRELUDE TO PEACE
1. Barbara W. Tuchman, The Guns of August (New York: Macmillan, 1962).
2. Reeves, President Kennedy, 306.
3. Basil Henry Liddell Hart, Deterrent or Defense: A Fresh Look at the West’s Military Position (New York: Praeger, 1960), 254, 257.
4. Sharon Bertsch McGrayne, The Theory That Would Not Die: How Bayes’ Rule Cracked the Enigma Code, Hunted Down Russian Submarines, & Emerged Triumphant from Two Centuries of Controversy (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2011).
5. Kennedy and Khrushchev, Top Secret, 487.
6. Cousins, The Improbable Triumvirate, 113.
7. Ibid., 114.
8. Ibid., 55.
9. James G. Richter, “Perpetuating the Cold War: Domestic Sources of International Patterns of Behavior,” Political Science Quarterly 107, no. 2 (Summer 1992): 273–274.
10. Kennedy and Khrushchev, Top Secret, 422.
CHAPTER 4: THE RHETORIC OF PEACE
1. John F. Kennedy, Profiles in Courage (New York: Harper & Row, 1964).
2. Winston Churchill, “The Few” (speech, London, August 20, 1940), the Churchill Centre and Museum, http://www.winstonchurchill.org/learn/speeches/speeches-of-winston-churchill/1940-finest-hour/113-the-few.
3. John F. Kennedy, “Proclamation 3525—Declaring Sir Winston Churchill an Honorary Citizen of the United States of America,” April 9, 1963, The American Presidency Project, ed. Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=24064.
4. Reeves, President Kennedy, 41.
5. McGeorge Bundy, recorded interview by Richard Neustadt, March 1964, 99–100, John F. Kennedy Library Oral History Program.
6. Theodore C. Sorensen, Counselor: A Life at the Edge of History (New York: Harper, 2008), 27.
7. John XXIII, Pacem in Terris, Encyclical of Pope John XXIII on Establishing Universal Peace in Truth, Justice, Charity, and Liberty, April 11, 1963, Papal Encyclicals Online, http://www.papalencyclicals.net/John23/j23pacem.htm, sec. 126.
8. Winston Churchill, “The Sinews of Peace” (speech, Fulton, Missouri, March 5, 1946), Britannia Historical Documents, http://www.britannia.com/history/docs/sinews1.html.
9. Dwight D. Eisenhower, “Chance for Peace” (speech, Washington, DC, April 16, 1953), Miller Center, http://millercenter.org/president/speeches/detail/3357.
10. Evan Thomas, Ike’s Bluff: President Eisenhower’s Secret Battle to Save the World (New York: Little, Brown, 2012), 65.
11. Dwight D. Eisenhower, “Atoms for Peace” (speech, New York, December 8, 1953), Miller Center, http://millercenter.org/president/speeches/detail/3358.
12. Winston Churchill, Speech to the House of Commons, May 11, 1945, Parliamentary Debates, Commons, vol. 515 cc883-1004, http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1953/may/11/foreign-affairs#S5CV0515P0_19530511_HOC_220.
13. Quoted in Leaming, Jack Kennedy, 213.
14. Dwight D. Eisenhower, “Farewell Address” (speech, Washington, DC, January 17, 1961), Miller Center, http://millercenter.org/president/speeches/detail/3361.
15. John F. Kennedy, “Inaugural Address” (speech, Washington, DC, January 20, 1961), Miller Center, http://millercenter.org/president/speeches/detail/3365.
16. Winston Churchill, Speech to the House of Commons, November 3, 1953. Parliamentary Debates, Commons, vol. 520 cc7-136, http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1953/nov/03/debate-on-the-address-first-day.
17. John F. Kennedy, “Address to the UN General Assembly” (speech, New York, September 25, 1961), Miller Center, http://millercenter.org/president/speeches/detail/5741.
18. Cousins, The Improbable Triumvirate, 65.
19. Ibid., 63.
20. John XXIII, Pacem in Terris, sec. 31.
21. Ibid., sec. 113.
22. Ibid., sec. 118.
23. Ibid., sec. 127–129.
CHAPTER 5: THE PEACE SPEECH
1. Theodore C. Sorensen, recorded interview by Carl Kaysen, April 15, 1964, 70–71, John F. Kennedy Library Oral History Program.
2. Cousins, The Improbable Triumvirate, 116.
3. Sorensen, recorded interview by Kaysen, 72.
4. William C. Foster, recorded interview by Charles T. Morrissey, August 5, 1964, 32, John F. Kennedy Library Oral History Program.
5. John F. Kennedy, “American University Commencement” (speech, Washington, DC, June 10, 1963), Miller Center, http://millercenter.org/president/speeches/detail/3374.
6. Churchill, Speech to the House of Commons, November 3, 1953.
7. John F. Kennedy, “Address on Civil Rights” (speech, Washington, DC, June 11, 1963), Miller Center, http://millercenter.org/president/speeches/detail/3375.
CHAPTER 6: THE CAMPAIGN FOR PEACE
1. “A Strategy of Peace,” Washington Post, June 11, 1963, 14.
2. “New Hope for a Test Ban,” New York Times, June 11, 1963, 36.
3. Walter Lippmann, “Let Live or Don’t Live,” Boston Globe, June 13, 1963, 18.
4. Roscoe Drummond, “A New Look at Cold War,” Christian Science Monitor, June 26, 1963, 9.
5. Thomas Sorensen to McGeorge Bundy, “West European Reaction to Peace Speech,” June 12, 1963, United States Information Agency, Sorensen Papers, Box 72, American University Commencement 6/10/63, John F. Kennedy Library.
6. Quoted in “British Welcome Speech,” New York Times, June 12, 1963, 4.
7. “The President’s Lead,” The Times, June 11, 1963, 13.
8. Richard H. Crossman, “Philosophy of Peace,” The Guardian, June 14, 1963, 20.
9. Amitai Etzioni, “The Kennedy Experiment,” Western Political Quarterly 20, no. 2, part 1 (June 1967): 366.
10. Foreign Broadcast Information Service, World Reaction Series, “Foreign Radio and Press Reaction to the President’s Foreign Policy Speech at American University on 10 June 1963,” June 14, 1963, NSF/305A/President’s Speeches: American University Speech, 6/10/63, 6/14/63–6/15/63, John F. Kennedy Library.
11. Arthur M. Schlesinger, A Thousand Days: John F. Kennedy in the White House (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1965), 904.
12. Ibid.
13. CIA Information Report, “Soviet Reaction to 10 June Speech of President Kennedy,” June 11, 1963, NSF/305A/President’s Speeches: American University Speech, 6/10/63, 6/13/63, John F. Kennedy Library.
14. “Text of Khrushchev on Kennedy Speech,” Moscow TASS in English to Europe 2205, June 14, 1963, NSF/305A/President’s Speeches: American University Speech, 6/10/63, 6/14/63–6/15/63, John F. Kennedy Library.
15. “Proposal Concerning the General Line of the International Communist Movement: The Letter of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China in Reply to the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union of March 30, 1963,” Sino-Soviet Split Document Archive, http://www.marxists.org/history/international/comintern/sino-soviet-�
�split/cpc/proposal.htm.
16. John Milton Cooper Jr., Woodrow Wilson (New York: Random House, 2009), 462.
17. Schlesinger, A Thousand Days, 884.
18. John F. Kennedy, “ ‘Ich bin ein Berliner’ Speech” (speech, Berlin, June 26, 1963), Miller Center, http://millercenter.org/president/speeches/detail/3376.
19. Andreas W. Daum, Kennedy in Berlin (Washington, DC: German Historical Institute, 2008), 28, 120.
20. Theodore Windt, Presidents and Protesters: Political Rhetoric in the 1960s (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1990), 72.
21. Bundy, recorded interview by Neustadt, 29.
22. John F. Kennedy, “Address at the Free University of Berlin” (speech, Berlin, June 26, 1963), The American Presidency Project, ed. Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=9310.
23. John F. Kennedy, “Address Before the Irish Parliament in Dublin” (speech, Dublin, June 28, 1963), The American Presidency Project, ed. Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=9317.
24. George Bernard Shaw, Back to Methuselah (Project Gutenberg eBook, 2004), http://www.gutenberg.org/files/13084/13084-8.txt.
25. Edward M. Kennedy, “Address at the Public Memorial Service for Robert F. Kennedy” (speech, New York, June 8, 1969), American Rhetoric, http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/ekennedytributetorfk.html.
26. John F. Kennedy, “Remarks in Naples at NATO Headquarters” (speech, Naples, July 2, 1963), The American Presidency Project, ed. Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=9332.
27. Sorensen, Kennedy, 733.
28. Glenn T. Seaborg, Kennedy, Khrushchev, and the Test Ban, ed. Benjamin S. Loeb (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981), 179.
29. Cousins, The Improbable Triumvirate, 97.
30. Seaborg, Kennedy, Khrushchev, and the Test Ban, 227.
31. Quoted in ibid.
32. NSC Action 2468, Instructions for Harriman Mission, July 9, 1963, NSF/265/ACDA: Disarmament, Subjects, Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, Harriman Trip to Moscow, Part B, John F. Kennedy Library.
33. Seaborg, Kennedy, Khrushchev, and the Test Ban, 237.
34. Andreas Wenger and Marcel Gerber, “John F. Kennedy and the Limited Test Ban Treaty: A Case Study of Presidential Leadership,” Presidential Studies Quarterly 29, no. 2 (June 1999), 478.
35. Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space and Under Water, U.S.-U.K.-U.S.S.R., Aug. 5, 1963, 14 U.S.T. 1313.
36. Foster, recorded interview by Morrissey, 30.
37. Adrian S. Fisher, recorded interview by Frank Sieverts, May 13, 1964, 77, John F. Kennedy Library Oral History Program.
CHAPTER 7: CONFIRMING THE TREATY
1. Cousins, The Improbable Triumvirate, 128.
2. Seaborg, Kennedy, Khrushchev, and the Test Ban, 264.
3. Cousins, The Improbable Triumvirate, 135.
4. John F. Kennedy, “Address on the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty” (speech, Washington, DC, July 26, 1963), Miller Center, http://millercenter.org/president/speeches/detail/3377.
5. Dallek, An Unfinished Life, 622.
6. Ibid., 345.
7. Wenger and Gerber, “John F. Kennedy and the Limited Test Ban Treaty,” 478.
8. Benjamin S. Loeb, “The Limited Test Ban Treaty,” in The Politics of Arms Control Treaty Ratification, ed. Michael Krepon and Dan Caldwell (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1991), 188.
9. Maxwell Taylor to Dean Rusk, July 27, 1963, NSF/264/ACDA: Disarmament, Subjects, Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, Congressional Relations, 5/63–7/63, John F. Kennedy Library.
10. Seaborg, Kennedy, Khrushchev, and the Test Ban, 265.
11. Loeb, “The Limited Test Ban Treaty,” in The Politics of Arms Control Treaty Ratification, 189.
12. Nuclear Test Ban Treaty: Hearings Before the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate, Eighty-eighth Congress, First Session, on The Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, In Outer Space, and Underwater, Signed at Moscow on August 5, 1963, on Behalf of the United States of America, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, 88th Cong. 276 (1963) (statement by General Maxwell Taylor, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff).
13. “Text of Scientists Statement Supporting Test Ban Treaty,” POF/100/JFKL, John F. Kennedy Library.
14. Seaborg, Kennedy, Khrushchev, and the Test Ban, 273.
15. Nuclear Test Ban Treaty: Hearings Before the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate, Eighty-eighth Congress, First Session, 88th Cong. 846–848 (1963) (letter from Dwight D. Eisenhower, Former President of the United States).
16. Sorensen, recorded interview by Kaysen, 83.
17. John F. Kennedy, “Letter to Senate Leaders Restating the Administration’s Views on the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty,” September 11, 1963, The American Presidency Project, ed. Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=9403.
18. Seaborg, Kennedy, Khrushchev, and the Test Ban, 280.
19. Loeb, “The Limited Test Ban Treaty,” in The Politics of Arms Control Treaty Ratification, 205.
20. John F. Kennedy, “Statement by the President Following the Senate Vote on the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty,” September 24, 1963, The American Presidency Project, ed. Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=9426.
21. To John F. Kennedy, “Summary of Governmental Reactions to Test Ban Treaty (excludes United States, UK, and USSR),” NSF/264/ACDA: Disarmament, Subjects, Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, Foreign Reaction, 7/63–10/63, John F. Kennedy Library.
22. John F. Kennedy, “Address to the UN General Assembly” (speech, New York, September 20, 1963), Miller Center, http://millercenter.org/president/speeches/detail/5764.
23. Vojtech Mastny, “The 1963 Nuclear Test Ban Treaty: A Missed Opportunity for Détente?” Journal of Cold War Studies 10, no. 1 (Winter 2008): 8.
24. Etzioni, “The Kennedy Experiment,” 367.
25. Kennedy and Khrushchev, Top Secret, 562.
26. Ibid., 566.
27. Quoted in William Taubman, Khrushchev: The Man and His Era (New York: W. W. Norton, 2004), 13.
CHAPTER 8: THE HISTORIC MEANING OF KENNEDY’S PEACE INITIATIVE
1. “Doomsday Clock,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, accessed February 11, 2013, http://www.thebulletin.org/content/doomsday-clock/timeline.
2. Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, U.S-U.K.-U.S.S.R., July 1, 1968, 21 U.S.T. 483, 729 U.N.T.S. 161.
3. John F. Kennedy, “The President’s News Conference,” March 21, 1963, The American Presidency Project, ed. Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=9124.
4. Thomas Graham Jr., “Avoiding the Tipping Point,” review of The Nuclear Tipping Point: Why States Reconsider Their Nuclear Choices, ed. Kurt M. Campbell, Robert J. Einhorn, and Mitchell B. Reiss (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2004).
5. See in particular the Nuclear Security Project, http://www.nuclearsecurityproject.org/, and the call by Henry Kissinger, Sam Nunn, George Shultz, and William Perry for a nuclear-free world.
6. For a brief overview of the period after 1963, see Raymond L. Garthoff, Détente and Confrontation: American-Soviet Relations from Nixon to Reagan (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1994); Gaddis, Strategies of Containment; Shane J. Maddock, Nuclear Apartheid: The Quest for American Atomic Supremacy from World War II to the Present (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010); Richard W. Stevenson, The Rise and Fall of Détente: Relaxations of Tension in US-Soviet Relations, 1953–84 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1985).
7. “Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT
I),” Arms Control Association, accessed February 19, 2013, http://www.armscontrol.org/documents/salt.
8. “Strategic Arms Limitation Talks II (SALT II),” Arms Control Association, accessed February 19, 2013, http://www.armscontrol.org/documents/salt2.
9. “Doomsday Clock,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists.
10. Robert S. Norris and Hans M. Kristensen, “Global Nuclear Weapons Inventories, 1945–2010,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 66, no. 4 (2010): 81–82; Robert S. Norris and Hans M. Kristensen, “Russian Nuclear Forces, 2010,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 66, no. 1 (2010): 74–81; Hans M. Kristensen and Robert S. Norris, “Russian Nuclear Forces, 2011,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 67, no. 3 (2011): 67–74; Hans M. Kristensen and Robert S. Norris, “Russian Nuclear Forces, 2012,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 68, no. 2 (2012): 87–97; Hans M. Kristensen and Robert S. Norris, “US Nuclear Forces, 2011,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 67, no. 2 (2011): 66–76; Hans M. Kristensen and Robert S. Norris, “US Nuclear Forces, 2012,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 68, no. 3 (2012): 84–91.
11. Norris and Kristensen, “Global Nuclear Stockpiles, 1945–2006,” 66.
12. U.S. Department of Energy, Nevada Operations Office, United States Nuclear Tests, July 1945 through September 1992 (Las Vegas: U.S. Department of Energy, Nevada Operations Office, 2000).
13. Norris and Kristensen, “Global Nuclear Weapons Inventories, 1945–2010,” 81–82; Thomas B. Cochran, William M. Arkin, Robert S. Norris, and Jeffrey I. Sands, Nuclear Weapons Databook, vol. 4, Soviet Nuclear Weapons (New York: Harper & Row, 1989); “Table of USSR/Russian ICBM Forces,” Natural Resources Defense Council, accessed March 22, 2013, http://www.nrdc.org/nuclear/nudb/datab4.asp.
14. Quoted in Murrey Marder, “Summit Clouded by Watergate,” New York Times, July 4, 1974.
15. “START I at a Glance,” Arms Control Association, accessed February 19, 2013, http://www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/start1.