15 Peregrine Horden and Nicholas Purcell, The Corrupting Sea: A Study of Mediterranean History, Vol. I, Oxford, Blackwell, 2000, p. 43.
16 Peter Gifford, 'The Effects of the British Seaman's Strike of 1925 on Fremantle', Great Circle, XIV, 2, 1992, p. 74.
17 Anthony Reid and Radin Fernando, 'Shipping in Melaka and Singapore as an Index of Growth, 1760–1840', in M.N. Pearson and I. Bruce Watson, eds, South Asia, 1996, XIX, Special Issue, 'Asia and Europe: Commerce, Colonialism and Cultures: Essays in Honour of Sinnappah Arasaratnam', pp. 61 et seq.
18 Fanny Parks, Wanderings of a Pilgrim, in Search of the Picturesque, London, P. Richardson, 1850, 2 vols, II, p. 480; Roy T. Sawyer, 'The Trade in Medicinal Leeches in the Southern Indian Ocean in the Nineteenth Century', Medical History, 43, 1999, pp. 241–5.
19 A.T. Yarwood, Walers: Australian Horses Abroad, Melbourne, Melbourne University Press, 1989.
20 Curzon, Persia, I, p. 4.
21 Andrew Pope, 'The P&O and the Asian Specie Network, 1850–1920', Typescript, 1992, p. 1; Andrew Pope, 'Australian Gold and the Finance of India's Exports during World War I: A Case Study of Imperial Control and Coordination', Indian Economic and Social History Review, 33, 2, 1996, pp. 115–31.
22 David Mitchell, Pirates, London, Thames and Hudson, 1976, p. 11.
23 P.A.B. Thomson, 'Jean François Hodoul, Corsair of the Indian Ocean', Mariner's Mirror, 83, 1997, pp. 310–17.
24 George Windsor Earl, The Eastern Seas, or Voyages and Adventures in the Indian Archipelago in 1832–34, London, W.H. Allen & Co, 1837, pp. 38–42.
25 Quoted in Lakshmi Subramanian, 'Of Pirates and Potentates: Maritime Jurisdiction and the Construction of Piracy in the Indian Ocean', in Devleena Ghosh and Stephen Muecke, eds, UTS Review, 2000, VI, 2, 'The Indian Ocean', p. 22.
26 Charles Belgrave, The Pirate Coast, New York, Roy Publishers, 1966, p. 33.
27 Sultan Md. Al-Qasimi, The Myth of Arab Piracy in the Gulf, London, Croom Helm, 1986, p. xv.
28 Ibid., p. 226.
29 Curzon, Persia, II, p. 308.
30 Ibid., II, pp. 450–1. For these events see Patricia Risso, 'Cross-Cultural Perceptions of Piracy: Maritime Violence in the Western Indian Ocean and Persian Gulf Region during the Long Eighteenth Century', in Journal of World History, XII, 2001, pp. 293–319, and Qasimi, The Myth of Arab Piracy, passim. His conclusions have been vigorously challenged in Charles E. Davies, The Blood-Red Arab Flag: An Investigation into Qasimi Piracy, 1797–1820, Exeter, Exeter University Press, 1997.
31 W.A.R. Richardson, 'An Indian Ocean Pilgrimage in Search of an Island', Great Circle, XI, 2, 1989, pp. 32–51.
32 Rhys Richards, 'The Maritime Fur Trade: Sealers and Other Residents on St Paul and Amsterdam Islands', Great Circle, VI, 1, 1984, p. 24.
33 Butel, The Atlantic, pp. 232–4.
34 David Arnold, Science, Technology and Medicine in Colonial India, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2000, pp. 104–5; Daniel Headrick, The Tools of Empire: Technology and European Imperialism in the Nineteenth Century, New York, Oxford University Press, 1981, pp. 19 et seq.
35 Frances Eden, Tigers, Durbars and Kings: Fanny Eden's Indian Journals, 1837–1838, London, Murray, 1988, p. 57.
36 Quoted in Arnold, Science, Technology and Medicine, p. 105.
37 G.L. Sulivan, Dhow Chasing in Zanzibar Waters and on the Eastern Coast of Africa: Narrative of Five Years' Experience in the Suppression of the Slave Trade, London, Sampson Low, Marston, Low & Searle, 1873, p. 133.
38 Ida Pfeiffer, A Lady's Second Journey around the World, London, Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans, 1855, 2 vols, I, p. 103.
39 K. Dharmasena, 'Colombo: Gateway and Oceanic Hub of Shipping', in Frank Broeze, ed., Brides of the Sea: Port Cities of Asia from the 16th-20th Centuries, Sydney, University of New South Wales Press, 1989, pp. 152–72.
40 Gillian Tindall, City of Gold: The Biography of Bombay, Harmondsworth, Penguin, 1992, p. 137.
41 Quoted in Freda Harcourt, 'The P&O Company: Flagships of Imperialism', in S. Palmer and G. Willians, eds, Charted and Uncharted Waters, London, National Maritime Museum in association with the Department of History, Queen Mary College, University of London, 1982, p. 6. Harcourt is the great authority on this and the following matters. See also her 'British Oceanic Mail Contracts in the Age of Steam, 1838–1914', Journal of Transport History, IX, March 1988, pp. 1–18, and 'P&O and Orient: A Cool Partnership, 1886–1914', Great Circle, XVII, 1995, pp. 73–94.
42 Pope, 'The P&O and the Asian Specie Network', pp. 3–4.
43 J. Forbes Munro, 'The "Scrubby Scotch Screw Company": British India Steam Navigation Co.'s Coastal Services in South Asia, 1862–1870', in Lewis R. Fischer, ed., From Wheel House to Counting House: Essays in Maritime Business History, St John's, NFLD, International Maritime Economic History, 1992, pp. 45, 65, 71.
44 Stephanie Jones, 'British India Steamers and the Trade of the Persian Gulf, 1862–1914', Great Circle, VII, 1985, pp. 23–44.
45 J. Forbes Munro, 'Shipping Subsidies and Railway Guarantees: William Mackinnon, Eastern Africa and the Indian Ocean, 1860–93', Journal of African History, 28, 1987, pp. 209–30.
46 Frank Broeze, 'From Imperialism to Independence: The Decline and Re-Emergence of Asian Shipping', Great Circle, IX, 1987, pp. 82–4.
47 Frank Broeze, ' Merchants from Steam to Sail: The West Australian Shipping Association and the Evolution of the Conference System, 1884–1910', in Fischer, ed., From Wheel House to Counting House, pp. 273–301.
48 Headrick, The Tools of Empire, pp. 142–8, 165–6; F.J.A. Broeze, K.I. McPherson and P.D. Reeves, 'Engineering and Empire: the Making of The Modern Indian Ocean Ports', in Satish Chandra, ed., The Indian Ocean, pp. 264–5.
49 Account of a voyage to Australia by Joseph Woodhouse, Australian National Maritime Museum, 1884, n.p., typescript.
50 Freda Harcourt, 'P&O and Orient', p. 73.
51 Munro, 'The "Scrubby Scotch Screw Company"', pp. 52–3.
52 Account of a voyage to Australia by Colin MacKenzie, Australian National Maritime Museum, 1890, n.p., typescript.
53 Sulivan, Dhow Chasing, p. 167.
54 Boyd Cable, A Hundred Year History of the P. & O. Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company, London, I. Nicholson and Watson, 1937, pp. 111–16.
55 Tompsitt, A Diary, p. 11.
56 Curzon, Persia, II, 467–8.
57 Broeze, 'From Imperialism to Independence', pp. 78–80.
58 J.N.F.M. À Campo, 'Perahu and Kapal: The Interaction of Traditional and Modern Shipping in Colonial Indonesia', in Everaert and Parmentier, eds, International Conference, pp. 343–66.
59 Alan Villiers, The Set of the Sails: The Adventures of a Cape Horn Seaman, London, Pan, 1955 (first ed. 1940), p. 246.
60 Eric Newby, The Last Grain Race, London, Picador, 1990 (first ed. 1956), p. 152 and passim.
61 Quoted in David Kirby and Merja-Liisa Hinkkanen, The Baltic and the North Seas, London, Routledge, 2000, p. 221.
62 Villiers, The Set of the Sails, pp. 136–7.
63 Janet J. Ewald, 'Crossers of the Sea: Slaves, Freedmen, and Other Migrants in the Northwestern Indian Ocean, c. 1750–1914', American Historical Review, February 2000, 105, pp. 75–6.
64 Mark Twain, Following the Equator: A Journey around the World, Hartford, American Publishing Co., 1897, p. 331.
65 Accounts of voyages to Australia by Lancelot L. Earl and Richard James Whyte, Australian National Maritime Museum, n.p., typescript.
66 Newby, The Last Grain Race, pp. 112, pp. 117–18.
67 Parks, Wanderings of a Pilgrim, I, 11.
68 Jackson, 'The Decline of the Wool Clippers', Great Circle, II, 1980, p. 93.
69 Burton, A.E.I., pp. 397, 64–71.
70 Gavin Young, Halfway Around the World: An Improbable Journey, New York, Random House, 1981, pp. 243–66.
71 Burton, A.E.I., p. 65.
72 A much-studied subject. See Hugh J. Schonfield, The Suez Canal, Harmondsworth, Penguin, 193
8, p. 111; Frank Broeze, Peter Reeves and Kenneth McPherson, 'Imperial Ports And The Modern World Economy: The Case Of The Indian Ocean', Journal of Transport History, VII, 2, 1986, p. 1; Elias H. Tuma, 'Suez Canal: Another Dimension in the European Network', Journal of European Economic History, 24, 1995, p. 623.
73 Tuma, 'Suez Canal', pp. 623–5.
74 Ewald, 'Crossers of the Sea', p. 79.
75 Quoted in Malcolm Tull, A Community Enterprise: The History of the Port of Fremantle, 1897 to 1997, St Johns, NFLD, International Maritime Economic History Association, 1997, pp. 123–4.
76 Quoted in Broeze et al., 'Engineering and Empire', p. 259.
77 Mrs Jemima Kindersley, Letters from the Island of Teneriffe, Brazil, The Cape of Good Hope, and the East Indies, London, J. Nourse, 1777, p. 81.
78 Ibid., pp. 82–3.
79 Parks, Wanderings of a Pilgrim, II, pp. 474–5.
80 Maria Graham, Journal of a Residence in India, Edinburgh, A. Constable, 1812, p. 148.
81 Earl, The Eastern Seas, pp. 23–4.
82 Broeze et al., 'Imperial Ports of the Indian Ocean', p. 5.
83 Broeze et al., 'Engineering and Empire', pp. 270–1 and passim for engineering works in ports around the littoral.
84 K. Dharmasena, 'Colombo: Gateway and Oceanic Hub of Shipping', in Broeze, ed., Brides of the Sea, pp. 154 et seq.; K. Dharmasena, 'The Port and Dock Workers of Colombo, 1860–1960', Great Circle, VII, 2, p. 104 et seq.
85 Indu Banga, 'Karachi and its Hinterland under Colonial Rule', in Indu Banga, ed., Ports and their Hinterlands in India, 1700–1950, New Delhi, Manohar, 1992, pp. 337–58.
86 Tindall, City of Gold, pp. 24–8 for a good description.
87 I.S. van Dongen, 'Mombasa in the Land and Sea Exchange of East Africa', Erdkunde, 17, 1963, pp. 16–38; B.S. Hoyle, 'Maritime Perspectives on Ports and Port Systems: The Case of East Africa', in Broeze, ed., Brides of the Sea, pp. 188–206.
88 Broeze et al., 'Imperial Ports of the Indian Ocean', p. 2.
89 Broeze et al., 'Imperial Ports and the Modern World Economy', pp. 18–19.
90 Arnold, Science, Technology and Medicine, p. 102.
91 Satpal Sangwan, 'The Sinking Ships: Colonial Policy and the Decline of Indian Shipping, 1735–1835', in Roy MacLeod and Deepak Kumar, eds, Technology and the Raj: Western Technology and Technical Transfers to India, 1700–1947, New Delhi, Sage, 1995, pp. 137–52.
92 For all of this see Frank Broeze's seminal article, 'Underdevelopment and Dependence: Maritime India under the Raj', Modern Asian Studies, XVIII, 1984, pp. 429–57.
93 Lakshmi Subramanian, Indigenous Capital and Imperial Expansion: Bombay, Surat, and the West Coast, Delhi, Oxford University Press, 1996, p. 15.
94 Hans-Dieter Evers, 'Chettiar Moneylenders in Southeast Asia', in Denys Lombard and Jean Aubin, eds, Marchands et hommes d'affairs asiatiques dans l'Océan Indien et la Mer de Chine 13e-20e siècles, Paris, Editions de l'Ecole des hautes études en sciences sociales, 1988, pp. 199–219. For the notion of circulation see Claude Markovits, The Global World of Indian Merchants, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2000.
95 Desh Gupta, 'South Asians in East Africa: Achievement and Discrimination', in Lance Brennan and Brij Lal, eds, South Asia, 1998, XXI, special issue, 'Across the Kala Pani: Indian Overseas Migration and Settlement', p. 106.
96 Richard F. Burton, Zanzibar, City, Island and Coast, Vol. II, London, Tinsley Brothers, 1872, pp. 327–8.
97 Quoted in Gervase Clarence-Smith, 'Indian Business Communities in the Western Indian Ocean in the Ninteenth Century', Indian Ocean Review, II, 4, December 1989, p. 20.
98 Earl, The Eastern Seas, pp. 177–8.
99 Rhys Richards, 'The Maritime Fur Trade: Sealers and Other Residents on St Paul and Amsterdam Islands', Great Circle, VI, 1 and 2, 1984, pp. 24–42 and 93–109.
100 Pfeiffer, A Lady's Second Journey, p. 148. For slavery see Gervase Clarence-Smith, ed., The Economics of the Indian Ocean Slave Trade in the Nineteenth Century, London, Cass, 1989.
101 Generally see K. McPherson, et al., 'The social expansion', in Friedland, ed., Maritime Aspects, pp. 427–40.
102 Hugh Tinker, A New System of Slavery: The Export of Indian Labour Overseas, 1830–1920, London, Oxford University Press, 1974, and for a more positive view David Northrup, Indentured Labour in the Age of Imperialism, 1834–1922, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1995. For Indians see Lance Brennan and Brij Lal, eds, 'Across the Kala Pani: Indian Overseas Migration and Settlement', South Asia, XXI, 1998, Special Issue.
103 Robert C.-H. Shell, 'Islam in Southern Africa, 1652–1998', in Nehemia Levtzion and Randall L. Pouwels, eds, The History of Islam in Africa, Athens, Ohio, Ohio University Press, 2000, p. 339.
104 The standard work is Marina Carter, Servants, Sirdars and Settlers: Indians in Mauritius, 1834–1874, Delhi, Oxford University Press, 1995. Also Tayyab Mahmud, 'Colonial Migrations and Post-Colonial Identities in South Asia', South Asia, XXIII, 1, 2000, pp. 90–2.
105 Ralph Shlomowitz, 'Mortality of Indian Labour on Ocean Voyages, 1843–1917', Studies in History, Delhi, VI, 1, January 1990, pp. 35–65.
106 Moti Lal Bhargava, Indian Ocean Strategies through the Ages, with Rare and Antique Maps, New Delhi, Reliance Publishing House, 1990, p. 132.
107 David Arnold, 'The Indian Ocean as a Disease Zone, 1500–1950', South Asia, 14, 1991, pp. 1–21.
108 Mirza Abu Taleb Khan, Travels in Asia, Africa and Europe during the years 1799 to 1803, New Delhi, Sona Publications, 1972 (first published 1814), pp. 8–21.
109 Graham, Journal of a Residence, p. 173.
110 Mark Staniforth, 'Diet, Disease and Death at Sea 1837–39', New Directions in Maritime History, ICMH/AAMH Conference, Fremantle, 6–10 December 1993, typescript.
111 Emma Roberts, The East-India Voyager: Or Ten Minutes Advice to the Outward Bound, London, J. Madden & Co., 1845, pp. 3–11.
112 'Trench's Travels', Indian Ocean Review, I, 3, September 1988, p. 2.
113 Eliza Fay, Original Letters from India, Calcutta, 1817, pp. 104–9, 218–19, 231. The punctuation is hers.
114 Account of a voyage to Australia by Lancelot L. Earl, Australian National Maritime Museum, n.p., typescript.
115 Parks, Wanderings of a Pilgrim, II, pp. 478–9.
116 Lancelot L. Earl.
117 Parks, Wanderings of a Pilgrim, I, p. 11.
118 Account of a voyage to Australia by Richard James Whyte, Australian National Maritime Museum, n.p., typescript.
119 Twain, Following the Equator, pp. 615–17.
120 Burton, A.E.I., pp. 404–5.
121 E.J. Harding, Dominions Diary: The Letters of E.J. Harding 1913–1916, ed. S. Constantine, Halifax, Ryburn Pubs, 1992, pp. 40–2, 50, 52, 54.
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