The Day We Found the Universe

by Marcia Bartusiak

  ——. 1990a. “Edwin Hubble's Cosmology.” In Evolution of the Universe of Galaxies: Edwin Hubble Centennial Symposium, ed. R. G. Kron. San Francisco: Astronomical Society of the Pacific.

  ——, ed. 1990b. The Edwin Hubble Papers. Tucson: Pachart Publishing House.

  ——. 1996. Hubble's Cosmology. Tucson: Pachart Publishing House.

  Hetherington, N. S., and R. S. Brashear. 1992. “Walter S. Adams and the Imposed Settlement between Edwin Hubble and Adriaan van Maanen.” Journal for the History of Astronomy 23: 53-56.

  Hoagland, H. 1965. “Harlow Shapley—Some Recollections.” Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific 77: 422-30.

  Hoffmann, B. 1972. Albert Einstein: Creator and Rebel. New York: Viking Press.

  Hoge, V 2005. “Wendell and Edison Hoge on Mount Wilson.” Reflections [Mount Wilson Observatory Association Newsletter] (June): 3-6.

  Holden, E. S. 1891. “Life at the Lick Observatory.” Scientific American 64 (January): 73.

  “Honor for Dr. Edwin P. Hubble.” 1925. Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific 37: 100-101.

  Hoskin, M. A. 1967. “Apparatus and Ideas in Mid-Nineteenth-Century Cosmology.” Vistas in Astronomy 9: 79-85.

  ——. 1970. “The Cosmology of Thomas Wright of Durham.” Journal for the History of Astronomy 1: 44-52.

  ——. 1976a. “The ‘Great Debate’: What Really Happened.” Journal for the History of Astronomy 7: 169-82.

  ——. 1976b. “Ritchey, Curtis and the Discovery of Novae in Spiral Nebulae.” Journal for the History of Astronomy 7: 47-53.

  ——. 1989. “William Herschel and the Construction of the Heavens.” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 133: 427-32.

  ——. 2002. “The Leviathan of Parsontown: Ambitions and Achievements.” Journal for the History of Astronomy 33: 57-70.

  Hoyle, F. 1950. The Nature of the Universe. New York: Harper.

  Hoyt, W. G. 1980. “Vesto Melvin Slipher.” In Biographical Memoirs, vol. 52. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.

  ——. 1996. Lowell and Mars. Tucson: University of Arizona Press.

  Hubble, E. P. 1920. “Photographic Investigations of Faint Nebulae.” Publications of the Yerkes Observatory 4: 69-85.

  ——. 1922. “A General Study of Diffuse Galactic Nebulae.” Astrophysical Journal 56: 162-99.

  ——. 1925a. “Cepheids in Spiral Nebulae.” Publications of the American Astronomical Society 5: 261-64.

  ——. 1925b. “N.G.C. 6822, a Remote Stellar System.” Astrophysical Journal 62: 409-33.

  ——. 1926. “Extra-Galactic Nebulae.” Astrophysical Journal 64: 321-69.

  ——. 1928. “Ten Million Worlds in Sky Census.” Los Angeles Examiner, October 28, pp. 1-2.

  ——. 1929a. “A Relation Between Distance and Radial Velocity Among Extra-Galactic Nebulae.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 15 (March 15): 168-73.

  ——. 1929b. “On the Curvature of Space.” Carnegie Institution of Washington News Service Bulletin, no. 13: 77-78.

  ——. 1935. “Angular Rotations of Spiral Nebulae.” Astrophysical Journal 81: 334-35.

  ——. 1936. The Realm of the Nebulae. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press.

  ——. 1937. The Observational Approach to Cosmology. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

  ——. 1953. “The Law of Red-Shifts.” Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 113: 658-66.

  Hubble, E., and M. L. Humason. 1931. “The Velocity-Distance Relation Among Extra-Galactic Nebulae.” Astrophysical Journal 74: 43-80.

  Hubble, E., and R. C. Tolman. 1935. “Two Methods of Investigating the Nature of the Nebular Red-Shift.” Astrophysical Journal 82: 302-37.

  “Hubble to Visit Oxford.” 1934. San Francisco Chronicle, May 6.

  Huggins, W. 1897. “The New Astronomy.” The Nineteenth Century 41 (June): 907-29.

  Huggins, W., and Mrs. Huggins. 1889. “On the Spectrum, Visible and Photographic, of the Great Nebula in Orion.” Proceedings of the Royal Society of London 46: 40-60.

  Humason, M. 1927. “Radial Velocities in Two Nebulae.” Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific 39: 317-18.

  ——. 1929. “The Large Radial Velocity of N. G C. 7619.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 15 (March): 167-68.

  ——. 1954. “Obituary Notices.” Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 114: 291-95.

  Hussey, E. F 1903. “Life at a Mountain Observatory.” Atlantic Monthly 92 (July): 29-32.

  Impey, C. 2001. “Reacting to the Size and the Shape of the Universe.” Mercury (January-February): 36-40.

  “Infinite and Infinitesimal.” 1925. Los Angeles Times, March 22, p. B4.

  International Astronomical Union. 1928. “Report of the Commission on Nebulae and Star Clusters.” Commission no. 28.

  Isaacson, W. 2007. Einstein: His Life and Universe. New York: Simon & Schuster.

  Jeans, J. H. 1917a. “Internal Motion in Spiral Nebulae.” Observatory 40: 60-61.

  ——. 1917b. “On the Structure of Our Local Universe.” Observatory 40: 406-7.

  ——. 1919. Problems of Cosmogony and Stellar Dynamics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

  ——. 1923. “Internal Motions in Spiral Nebulae.” Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 84: 60-76.

  ——. 1929. Eos or the Wider Aspects of Cosmogony. New York: E. P. Dutton.

  ——. 1930. The Mysterious Universe. New York: Macmillan.

  ——. 1932. “Beyond the Milky Way.” British Association for the Advancement of Science. Report of the Centenary Meeting. London, 1931. London: Office of the British Association.

  Johnson, G. 2005. Miss Leavitt's Stars. New York: W. W. Norton.

  Jones, B. Z., and L. G. Boyd. 1971. The Harvard College Observatory: The First Four Directorships, 1839-1919. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.

  Jones, K. G. 1976. “S Andromedae, 1885: An Analysis of Contemporary Reports and a Reconstruction.” Journal for the History of Astronomy 7: 27-40.

  Kahn, C, and F. Kahn. 1975. “Letters from Einstein to de Sitter on the Nature of the Universe.” Nature 257 (October 9): 451-54.

  Kant, I. 1900. Kant's Cosmogony as in His Essay on the Retardation of the Rotation of the Earth and His Natural History and Theory of the Heavens, ed. and trans. W. Hastie. Glasgow: James Maclehose and Sons.

  Karachentsev, I. D., and O. G. Kashibadze. 2006. “Masses of the Local Group and of the M81 Group Estimated from Distortions in the Local Velocity Field.” Astrophysics 49 (January): 7.

  Keeler, J. E. 1888a. “The First Observations of Saturn with the Great Telescope.” San Francisco Examiner, January 10.

  ——. 1888b. “First Observations of Saturn with the 36-Inch Equatorial of Lick Observatory.” The Sidereal Messenger, no. 62.

  ——. 1895. “A Spectroscopic Proof of the Meteoric Constitution of Saturn's Rings.” Astrophysical Journal 1: 416-27.

  ——. 1897. “The Importance of Astrophysical Research and the Relation of Astrophysics to Other Physical Sciences.” Science 6 (November 19): 745-55.

  ——. 1898a. “Photographs of Comet I, 1898 (Brooks), Made with the Crossley Reflector of the Lick Observatory.” Astrophysical Journal 8: 287-90.

  ——. 1898b. “The Small Bright Nebula Near Merope.” Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific 10: 245-46.

  ——. 1899a. “Photograph of the Great Nebula in Orion, Taken with the Crossley Reflector of the Lick Observatory.” Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific 11: 39-40.

  ——. 1899b. “Small Nebulae Discovered with the Crossley Reflector of the Lick Observatory.” Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 59: 537-38.

  ——. 1899c. “New Nebulae Discovered Photographically with the Crossley Reflector of the Lick Observatory.” Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 60: 128.

  ——. 1899d. “Scientific Work of the Lick Observatory.” Science 10:
665-70.

  ——. 1900a. “On the Predominance of Spiral Forms Among the Nebulae.” Astronomische Nachrichten 151: 1.

  ——. 1900b. “The Crossley Reflector of the Lick Observatory.” Astrophysical Journal 11: 325-49.

  Kerszberg, P. 1986. “The Cosmological Question in Newton's Science.” Osiris, 2nd series, 2: 69-106.

  ——. 1989. The Invented Universe: The Einstein-de Sitter Controversy (1916-17) and the Rise of Relativistic Cosmology. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

  Kopal, Z. 1972. “Dr. Harlow Shapley.” Nature 240: 429-30.

  Kostinsky, S. 1916. “Probable Motions in the Spiral Nebula Messier 51 (Canes Venatici) Found with the Stereo-Comparator.” Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 77: 233-34.

  Kragh, H. 1987. “The Beginning of the World: Georges Lemaître and the Expanding Universe.” Centaurus 32: 114-39.

  ——. 1990. “Georges Lemaître.” Dictionary of Scientific Biography, vol. 18, suppl. 2. New York: Scribner's.

  ——. 1996. Cosmology and Controversy. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996.

  ——. 2007. Conceptions of Cosmos. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

  Kragh, H., and R. W. Smith. 2003. “Who Discovered the Expanding Universe?” History of Science 41: 141-62.

  Kreiken, E. A. 1920. “On the Differential Measurement of Proper Motion.” Observatory 43: 255-60.

  Kron, R. G., ed. 1990. Evolution of the Universe of Galaxies: Edwin Hubble Centennial Symposium. Astronomical Society of the Pacific Conference Series, vol. 10. San Francisco: Astronomical Society of the Pacific.

  Lankford, J. 1997. American Astronomy: Community, Careers, and Power, 1859-1940. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

  Leavitt, H. S. 1908. “1777 Variables in the Magellanic Clouds.” Annals of the Astronomical Observatory of Harvard College 60: 87-108.

  Leavitt, H., and E. C. Pickering. 1912. “Periods of 25 Variable Stars in the Small Magellanic Cloud.” Harvard College Observatory Circular no. 173: 1-3.

  Lemaître, G. 1931a. “A Homogeneous Universe of Constant Mass and Increasing Radius Accounting for the Radial Velocity of Extra-Galactic Nebulae.” Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 91: 483-89.

  ——. 1931b. “The Beginning of the World from the Point of View of Quantum Theory.” Nature 127: 706.

  ——. 1950. The Primeval Atom. New York: Van Nostrand.

  Lorentz, H. A., A. Einstein, H. Minkowski, and H. Weyl. 1923. The Principle of Relativity. Trans. W. Perrett and G. B. Jeffery. London: Methuen and Company.

  Lowell, A. L. 1935. Biography of Percival Lowell. New York: Macmillan.

  Lowell, P. 1905. “Chart of Faint Stars Visible at the Lowell Observatory.” Popular Astronomy 13: 391-92.

  Lundmark, K. 1919. “Die Stellung der kugelförmigen Sternhaufen und Spiralnebel zu unserem Sternsystem.” Astronomische Nachrichten 209: 369.

  ——. 1921. “The Spiral Nebula Messier 33.” Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific 33: 324-27.

  ——. 1922. “On the Motions of Spirals.” Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific 34: 108-15.

  Luyten, W. J. 1926. “Island Universes.” Natural History 26: 386-91.

  MacPherson, H. 1916. “The Nature of Spiral Nebulae.” Observatory 39 (March):

  131-34.

  ——. 1919. “The Problem of Island Universes.” Observatory 42 (September): 329-34.

  “Mars.” 1907. Wall Street Journal, December 28, p. 1.

  Maunder, E. W. 1885. “The New Star in the Great Nebula in Andromeda.” Observatory 8: 321-25.

  Maxwell, J. C. 1983. Maxwell on Saturn's Rings, ed. S. G. Brush, C. W. F. Everitt, and E. Garber. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.

  Mayall, N. U. 1937. “The Realm of the Nebulae, by Edwin Hubble.” Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific 49: 42-47.

  ——. 1954. “Edwin Hubble: Observational Cosmologist.” Sky & Telescope (January): 78-80, 85.

  McCrea, W. 1990. “Personal Recollections.” In Modern Cosmology in Retrospect, ed. B. Bertotti et al. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

  McMath, R. R. 1942. “Heber Doust Curtis.” Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific 54 (April): 69-71.

  ——. 1944. “Heber Doust Curtis, 1872-1942.” Astrophysical Journal 99 (May): 245-48.

  McPhee, J. 1998. Annals of the Former World. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux.

  McVittie, G. C. 1967. “Georges Lemaître.” Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society 8: 294-97.

  Melotte, P. J. 1915. “A Catalogue of Star Clusters Shown on the Franklin-Adams Chart Plates.” Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society 60: 168.

  Messier, C. 1781. Catalogue des Nébuleuses et Amas d'Étoiles Observées à Paris. Paris: Imprimerie Royal.

  Miller, H. S. 1970. Dollars for Research. Seattle: University of Washington Press.

  Milne, E. A. 1932. “World Structure and the Expansion of the Universe.” Nature 130 (July): 9-10.

  “Mrs. Mizner Now Divorced.” 1907. New York Times, August 25, p. 5.

  “Mrs. Yerkes Marries Young San Franciscan.” 1906. New York Times, February 1, p. 2. “The New Director of Lick.” 1898. New York Tribune, March 20, p. 7.

  Newcomb, S. 1888. “The Place of Astronomy Among the Sciences.” Sidereal Messenger 7: 69-70.

  Newcomb, S., and E. S. Holden. 1889. Astronomy. New York: Henry Holt and Company.

  Newton, I. 1717. Opticks; or, A Treatise of the Reflections, Refractions, Inflections and Colours of Light, 2nd ed. London: W. Bowyer.

  Nichol, J. P. 1840. Views of the Architecture of the Heavens in a Series of Letters to a Lady. New York: H. A. Chapin.

  ——. 1846. Thoughts on Some Important Points Relating to the System of the World. Edinburgh: William Tait.

  ——. 1848. The Stellar Universe. Edinburgh: John Johnstone.

  “Notables of World to Opening.” 1931. Los Angeles Times, January 25, p. B14.

  Nowell, C. E., ed. 1962. Magellan's Voyage Around the World. Evanston, Ill.: Northwestern University Press.

  Noyes, A. 1922. The Torch-Bearers—Watchers of the Sky. New York: Stokes.

  Olmsted, D. 1834. “Observations of the Meteors of November 13th, 1833.” American Journal of Science and Arts 25 (January): 363-411.

  ——. 1866. A Compendium of Astronomy. New York: Collins & Brothers.

  Öpik, E. 1922. “An Estimate of the Distance of the Andromeda Nebula.” Astrophysical Journal 55: 406-10.

  Osterbrock, D. 1976. “The California-Wisconsin Axis in American Astronomy, II.” Sky & Telescope 51 1976: 91-97.

  ——. 1984. James E. Keeler: Pioneer American Astrophysicist. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

  ——. 1986. “Early Days at Lick Observatory.” Mercury 15 (March-April): 53, 63.

  ——. 1993. Pauper & Prince: Ritchey, Hale, & Big American Telescopes. Tucson: University of Arizona Press.

  ——. 2001. “Astronomer for All Seasons: Heber D. Curtis.” Mercury 30 (May-June): 25-31.

  Osterbrock, D. E., R. S. Brashear, and J. A. Gwinn. 1990. “Self-Made Cosmologist: The Education of Edwin Hubble.” In Evolution of the Universe of Galaxies: Edwin Hubble Centennial Symposium, ed. Richard G. Kron. San Francisco: Astronomical Society of the Pacific.

  Osterbrock, D. E., and D. P. Cruikshank. 1983. “J. E. Keeler's Discovery of a Gap in the Outer Part of the A Ring.” Icarus 53: 165-73.

  Osterbrock, D. E., J. R. Gustafson, and W. J. S. Unruh. 1988. Eye on the Sky: Lick Observatory's First Century. Berkeley: University of California Press.

  Paddock, G F. 1916. “The Relation of the System of Stars to the Spiral Nebulae.” Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific 28: 109-15.

  Pais, A. 1982. “Subtle Is the Lord…”: The Science and the Life of Albert Einstein. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

  Pang, A. S.-K. 1997. “‘Stars Should Henceforth Register Themselves’: Astrophotography at the Early Lick Observatory.” British Journal of the
History of Science 30: 177– 202.

  Pannekoek, A. 1989. A History of Astronomy. New York: Dover.

  Paul, E. 1993. The Milky Way and Statistical Cosmology, 1890-1924. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

  Payne-Gaposchkin, C., with K. Haramundanis, ed. 1984. Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin: An Autobiography and Other Recollections. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

  Perrine, C. D. 1904. “A New Mounting for the Three-Foot Mirror of the Crossley Reflecting Telescope.” Lick Observatory Bulletin 3: 124-28.

  Pickering, E. C. 1898. Harvard College Observatory Annual Report 53: 1-14.

  ——. 1917. Harvard College Observatory Bulletin, no. 641 (28 July).

  Plaskett, J. S. 1911. “Some Recent Interesting Developments in Astronomy.” Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada 5 (July-August): 245-65. “A Prize for Lemaître.” 1934. Literary Digest 117 (March 31): 16.

  Proctor, R. 1872. The Orbs Around Us. London: Longmans, Green.

  Putnam, W. L. 1994. The Explorers of Mars Hill. West Kennebunk, Maine: Phoenix Publishing.

  “Red Shift of Nebulae a Puzzle, Says Einstein.” 1931. New York Times, February 12, p. 15.

  “Relativity.” 1930. Los Angeles Times, December 15, p. A4.

  “Report of the Council to the Forty-Ninth General Meeting of the Society.” 1869. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 29 (February): 109-91.

  “Report of the RAS Meeting in January 1930.” 1930 Observatory 53: 33-44.

  “Report of the Seventeenth Meeting.” 1914. Popular Astronomy 22: 551-70.

  “Report of the Seventeenth Meeting (continued).” 1915. Popular Astronomy 23: 18-28.

  Ritchey, G. W. 1897. “A Support System for Large Specula.” Astrophysical Journal 5: 143-47.

  ——. 1901. “The Two-Foot Reflecting Telescope of the Yerkes Observatory.” Astrophysical Journal 14: 217-33.

  ——. 1910a. “On Some Methods and Results in Direct Photography with the 60-Inch Reflecting Telescope of the Mount Wilson Solar Observatory.” Astrophysical Journal 32: 26-35.

  ——. 1910b. “Notes on Photographs of Nebulae Made with the 60-Inch Reflector of the Mount Wilson Observatory.” Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 70 (June): 623-27.

  ——. 1910c. “Notes on Photographs of Nebulae Taken with the 60-Inch Reflector of the Mount Wilson Solar Observatory.” Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 70 (Suppl. 1910c): 647-49.