by Peter Watson
48 Haynes, Op. cit., p. 183.
49 Ibid, p. 198.
50 Ibid, p. 161.
51 Ibid, p. 163. Waters et al., ‘Redefining the Age of Clovis’, Op. cit., p. 1125.
52 Ibid, p. 166.
53 Paul S. Martin, Twilight of the Mammoths: Ice Age Extinctions and the Rewilding of America (organisms and environments), Los Angeles and Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005 (reissue).
54 Haynes, Op. cit., p. 166. R. Dale Guthrie, ‘New carbon dates link climatic change with human colonization and Pleistoene extinctions’, Nature, Vol. 441, 11 May 2006,pp. 207–209, DOI:10.1038/nature04604.
55 Ibid.
56 Jared Diamond, Guns, Germs and Steel: the Fates of Human Societies, New York and London: W.W. Norton, 2005, p. 47.
57 New Scientist, 26 May 2007, pp. 8–9. Briggs Buchanan et al., ‘Peleoindian demography and the extraterrestrial impact hypothesis’, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. Vol. 105, 2008, pp. 11651–11654; James Kennett and Allen West, ‘Biostratigraphic evidence supports Paeloindian disruption at ~12.9 ka’, http://www. pnas.org?content/105/50/E110.full.
58 Haynes, The Early Settlement, Op. cit., p. 161.
59 Ibid., p. 163.
60 Ibid., p. 166.
61 Kate Ravilious, ‘Messages from the Stone Age’, New Scientist, 20 February 2010,pp. 30–34.
62 Diamond, Op. cit., p. 67.
CHAPTER 5: RINGS OF FIRE AND THERMAL TRUMPETS
1 David Landes, The Wealth and Poverty of Nations, London: Abacus, 1998, p. 7.
2 Landes, Op. cit., p. 17.
3 Ibid, p. 19.
4 Ibid.
5 Peter D. Clift and R. Alan Plumb, The Asian Monsoon: causes, history, and effects, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2008, p. 136.
6 Brian Fagan, The Long Summer: How Climate Changed Civilization, London: Granta, 2004, p. 170.
7 Fagan, The Long Summer, Op. cit., p. 171.
8 Clift and Plumb, Op. cit., p. 203.
9 Ibid, p. 204. T. J. Wilkinson, Archaeological Landscapes of the Near East, Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2003, p. 210.
10 Brian Fagan, From Blackland to Fifth Sun, Reading, MA: Perseus Books, 1998, p. 278.
11 Clift and Plumb, Op. cit., p. 207.
12 Ibid.
13 Ibid, p. 204.
14 Ibid, p. 212.
15 Ibid, p. 214.
16 Ibid, pp. 214–215.
17 Ibid, p. 215.
18 Tom Simkin et al., Volcanoes of the World, Stroudsberg, PA: Hutchinson Ross Publishing for the Smithsonian Institution, Washington DC, 1981, passim.
19 David K. Keefer et al., ‘Early Maritime Economy and El Niño events at Quebrada Tacahuay, Peru’, Science, 18 September 1998, Vol. 281,No. 5384,pp. 1833–1835.
20 Jelle Zeitlinga de Boer and Donald Theodor Sanders, Earthquakes and Human History, Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2004, p. 16.
21 Paul Wheatley, The Pivot of the Four Corners, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1971,pp. 478 and 481.
22 Wheatley, Op. cit., p. 228.
23 Kerry Sieh and Simon LeVay, The Earth in Turmoil: Earthquakes, Volcanoes and their Impact on Humankind, New York: W.H. Freeman, 1998, pp. 146–151.
24 Jelle Zeitlinga de Boer and Donald Theodor Sanders, Volcanoes in Human History, Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2003, p. 4. For details about the Planchón-Peteroa landslide, see: Global and Planetary Change, DOI: 10.1016/j.gloplacha.2010.08.003, quoted in: Kate Ravilious, ‘How climate change could flatten cities’, New Scientist, 16 October 2010, p. 14.
25 De Boer and Sanders, Volcanoes in Human History, Op. cit., pp. 6–7.
26 Kerry Emanuel, Divine Wind: The history and science of hurricanes, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2005,pp. 187–189.
27 Emanuel, Op. cit., p. 32.
28 Art Wolf and Ghillean Prance, Rainforests of the World: Water, Fire, Earth and Air, London: Harvill, 1998, p. 245.
29 Timothy Flannery, The Eternal Frontier, London: William Heinemann, 2001, pp. 83–118.
30 Clift and Plumb, Op. cit., p. 223.
31 Ibid.
32 Ibid, p. 225. T. J. Wilkinson, personal communication, May 2011.
33 Ibid, p. 226.
34 Ibid, p. 227.
35 Jared Diamond, Guns, Germs and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies, London: Jonathan Cape, 1997, p. 177.
36 Diamond, Op. cit., p. 367.
37 Jared Diamond, The Third Chimpanzee: The Evolution and Future of the Human Animal, New York: Harper Perennial, 1992,pp. 222–223.
38 Richard Keatinge, Peruvian Prehistory: An Overview of Pre-Inca and Inca Society, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1988, p. 38.
39 Diamond, Guns, Germs and Steel, Op. cit., p. 581.
40 Ibid, pp. 190 and 370.
41 Peregrine Horden and Nicholas Purcell, The Corrupting Sea: A Study of Mediterranean History, Oxford: Blackwell, 2000, p. 346.
42 Horden and Purcell, Op. cit., p. 381.
43 Ibid, p. 141.
44 Ibid, pp. 185–215, passim.
45 Oppenheimer, Eden in the East, Op. cit., p. 32.
CHAPTER 6: ROOTS V. SEEDS AND THE ANOMALOUS DISTRIBUTION OF DOMESTICABLE MAMMALS
1 Diamond, Guns, Germs and Steel, Op. cit., p. 128.
2 Ibid, p. 149.
3 Ibid, p. 101.
4 Carl O. Sauer, Agricultural Origins and Dispersals, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1952/1969, p. 73.
5 Diamond, Guns, Germs and Steel, Op. cit., p. 125.
6 Ibid, p. 142.
7 Ibid, pp. 150–151.
8 Ibid, p. 418.
9 Jeff Hecht, ‘Out of Asia’, New Scientist, 23 March 2002, p. 12.
10 Diamond, Guns, Germs and Steel, Op. cit., p. 173. The earliest record of domesticated dogs may be at Oberkassel in Germany, dated to 14,000 years ago. See: Juliet Clutton-Brock, A Natural History of Domesticated Mammals, Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999, p. 58.
11 Graeme Barker, The Agricultural Revolution in Prehistory: Why did foragers become farmers?, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006, 145.
12 Diamond, Guns, Germs and Steel, Op. cit., p. 400.
CHAPTER 7: FATHERHOOD, FERTILITY, FARMING: ‘THE FALL’
1 David Lewis-Williams, The Mind in the Cave, London and New York: Thames & Hudson, 2002,pp. 199–200 and 216–217.
2 Lewis-Williams, Op. cit., pp. 224–225.
3 Ibid., pp. 285–286.
4 Ibid.
5 Mircea Eliade, A History of Religious Ideas, Vol. 1, London: Collins, 1979, p. 20.
6 Anne Baring and Jules Cashford, The Myth of the Goddess: Evolution of an Image, Arkana/Penguin Books, 1991/1993,pp. 9–14.
7 Enrique Florescano, The Myth of Quetzalcoatl, trs. Lysa Hochroth, Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999, p. 199.
8 Elizabeth Wayland Barber and Paul T. Barber, When They Severed Earth from Sky: How the Human Mind Shapes Myth, Princeton, NJ and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2004.
9 Nature, DOI:10.1038/nature07995. See also: Haim Ofek, Second Nature: Economic Origins of Human Evolution, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2011, especially the maps on pp. 185 and 188.
10 Nature, DOI:10.1038/nature08837.
11 Malcolm Potts and Roger Short, Ever Since Adam and Eve: The Evolution of Human Sexuality, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999, p. 85.
12 Baring and Cashford, Op. cit., p. 6.
13 Ibid, p. 30.
14 David R. Harris (editor), The Origin and Spread of Agriculture and Pastoralism in Eurasia, London: University College London Press, 1996, p. 135.
15 Harris (editor), Op. cit., p. 166.
16 Chris Scarre, ‘Climate change and faunal extinction at the end of the Pleistocene,’ chapter 5 of The Human Past, edited by Chris Scarre, London: Thames & Hudson, 2006, p. 13. See also: Peter Bellwood, First Farmers: the Origins of Agricultural Societies, Oxford: Blackwell, 2005, p. 65.
17 Peter Watson, Ideas; A History
from Fire to Freud, London: Phoenix/Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2006, p. 77.
18 See also: Jared Diamond, Guns, Germs and Steel, Op. cit., p. 105.
19 Mark Nathan Cohen, The Food Crisis in Prehistory, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1977.
20 Les Groube, ‘The impact of diseases upon the emergence of agriculture’, in Harris (editor), Op. cit., pp. 101–129.
21 Jacques Cauvin, The Birth of the Gods and the Origins of Agriculture, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2000 (French publication, 1994, translation: Trevor Watkins), p. 15.
22 Cauvin, Op. cit., pp. 16 and 22.
23 Ibid, pp. 39–48.
24 Ibid, p. 128.
25 Fagan, The Long Summer, Op. cit., p. 103.
26 Michael Balter, The Goddess and the Bull: Çatalhöyük: An archaeological journey to the dawn of civilization, New York: Free Press, 2005,pp. 176ff.
27 http://wholehealthsource.blogspot.com/2008/08/life-expectancy-and-growth-of.html. Posted 5 August, 2008.
28 Elaine Pagels, Adam and Eve and the Serpent, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1988, p. 29.
29 Pagels, Op. cit., p. 27.
30 Potts and Short, Op. cit., p. 46.
31 Pagels, Op. cit., p. xiv.
32 Jean Delumeau, The History of Paradise: The Garden of Eden in Myth and Tradition, trs. Matthew O’Connell, New York: Continuum, 1995, p. 196.
33 Delumeau, Op. cit., p. 197.
34 Delumeau, Op. cit., p. 7; Potts and Short, Op. cit., p. 152.
35 Timothy Taylor, The Prehistory of Sex, London: Fourth Estate, 1997, p. 144.
36 Taylor, Op. cit., p. 132.
37 Cauvin, Op. cit., p. 69.
CHAPTER 8: PLOUGHING, DRIVING, MILKING, RIDING – FOUR THINGS THAT NEVER HAPPENED IN THE NEW WORLD
1 Andrew Sherratt, Economy and Society in Prehistoric Europe: Changing Perspectives, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1998, p. 158.
2 Diamond, Guns, Germs and Steel, Op. cit., pp. 132 and 162.
3 Sherratt, Op. cit., p. 161.
4 Ibid, p. 165.
5 Ibid, p. 170.
6 Ibid, p. 171.
7 Robert Drews, The End of the Bronze Age: changes in warfare and the catastrophe ca. 1200 BC, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993.
8 Sherratt, Op. cit., p. 173.
9 Ibid.
10 Ibid, p. 178.
11 Ibid, p. 180.
12 Ibid, p. 181.
13 Ibid, p. 184.
14 PLos Computational Biology, DOI:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1000491; http://www. livescience.com/2751-love-milk-dated-6000.html).
15 Sherratt, Op. cit., p. 188.
16 Ibid, p. 191. S.K. McIntosh (editor), Beyond Chiefdoms, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999,pp. 73–75; Susan Keech McIntosh, ‘Floodplains and the Development of Complex Society: Comparative Perspectives from the West African Semi-arid Tropics’, in Elisabeth Benson & Lisa Lucero (editors), Complex Polities in the Ancient Tropical World, Archaeological Papers of the American Anthropological Association, Number 9, 1999,pp. 151–165.
17 Ibid, p. 192.
18 Ibid.
19 Ibid, p. 194.
20 Ibid, p. 195.
21 Ibid.
22 Ibid, p. 198.
CHAPTER 9: CATASTROPHE AND THE (ALL-IMPORTANT) ORIGINS OF SACRIFICE
1 Sherratt, Op. cit., p. 336.
2 Ibid, p. 337.
3 Ibid, p. 334.
4 Ibid, p. 351.
5 Ibid, p. 353.
6 Chris Scarre, ‘Shrines of the Land: religion and the transition to farming in Western Europe’; paper delivered at the conference, ‘Faith in the past: Theorising an archaeology of religion’, in Kelley Hays Gilpin and David S. Whitley (editors), Belief in the Past: theoretical approaches to the archaeology of religion, Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press, 2008, p. 6.
7 Sherratt, Op. cit.p. 355.
8 Ibid, p. 356.
9 Colin Renfrew, Before Civilization, London: Cape, 1973,pp. 162–163.
10 Eliade, Op. cit., p. 117.
11 Immanuel Velikovsky, Ages in Chaos, London: Sidgwick & Jackson, 1953; Earth in Upheaval, Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1955; Worlds in Collision: terror and the future of global order, Basingstoke (UK): Palgrave, 1950 and 2002, edited by Kim Booth and Tim Dunne.
12 Benny J. Paiser, et al. (editors), Natural Catastrophes During Bronze Age Civil-isations: Archaeological, Geological, Astronomical and Cultural Prospectives, Oxford: British Archaeological Reports, International Series, 728, 1998., p. 28.
13 Paiser, Op. cit., p. 23.
14 Ibid.
15 Ibid, p. 55.
16 Ibid, pp. 60–61.
17 Ibid, p. 64.
18 Ibid, p. 42.
19 Ibid, p. 46.
20 Ibid, p. 174.
21 Robert G. Hamerton-Kelly (editor), Violent Origins: Walter Burkett, Rene Girard and Jonathan Z. Smith on Ritual Killing and Cultural Formations, Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1987, passim, but especially p. 204.
22 Hamerton-Kelly, Op. cit., p. 179.
23 Fagan, From Black Lands to Fifth Sun, Op. cit., pp. 93–94.
24 Ibid, p. 245.
25 Jan N. Bremner (editor), The Strange World of Human Sacrifice, Leuven, Paris, Dudley, MA: Peeters, 2007, p. 230.
26 Marija Gimbutas, The Gods and Goddesses of Old Europe: 6500 to 3500 BC, London: Thames & Hudson, 1982, p. 236.
27 Ibid.
28 Ibid.
CHAPTER 10: FROM NARCOTICS TO ALCOHOL
1 Sherratt, Op. cit., p. 406.
2 Mark David Merlin, On the Trail of the Ancient Poppy, London and Toronto: Fairleigh University Press and Associated Universities Press, 1984, passim.
3 Sherratt, Op. cit., p. 408.
4 Ibid, p. 409.
5 Ibid, p. 410.
6 Ibid, p. 411.
7 Ibid.
8 Ibid, pp. 414–416.
9 Ibid, p. 417.
10 Ibid, pp. 419–421.
11 Ibid, p. 423.
12 Ibid, p. 422.
13 Ibid. p. 424.
14 Ibid.
15 Ibid. p. 380.
16 Ibid, pp. 386–387.
17 Ibid, p. 391.
18 Ibid, p. 392.
19 Ibid, p. 393.
20 Ibid, p. 396.
21 Andrew Sherratt, ‘Alcohol and Its Alternatives’, in Jordan Goodman et al. (editors), Consuming Habits: Drugs in History and Anthropology, London and New York: Routledge, 1995,pp. 16–17.
22 Sherratt, ‘Alcohol and Its Alternatives,’ Op. cit., pp. 17–18.
23 Ibid, pp. 18–19.
24 Ibid, p. 20.
25 Merlin, Op. cit., p. 269.
26 Ibid, pp. 212 and 220–221.
27 Sherratt, ‘Alcohol and Its Alternatives,’ Op. cit., p. 30.
28 Ibid.
29 Ibid. p. 31.
30 Mott T. Greene, Natural Knowledge in Pre-Classical Antiquity, Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992, chapter 6.
CHAPTER 11: MAIZE: WHAT PEOPLE ARE MADE OF
1 John Reader, Propitious Esculent: The Potato in World History, London: William Heinemann, 2008, p. 32.
2 Redcliffe Salaman, The History and Social Influence of the Potato, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1949, p. 2.
3 Reader, Op. cit., p. 26.
4 Ibid, p. 11.
5 Salaman, Op. cit., p. 38.
6 Reader, Op. cit., p. 16.
7 Ibid, pp. 27–28.
8 Ibid, p. 32.
9 Diamond, Guns, Germs and Steel, Op. cit., p. 137.
10 John Staller et al. (editors), Histories of Maize: Multidisciplinary Approaches to the Prehistory, Linguistics, Biogeography and Evolution of Maize, Amsterdam: Elsevier/Academic Press, 2006, p. 55.
11 Bruce F. Benz et al., ‘El Riego and Early Maize Agricultural Evolution’, in Staller et al. (editors), Op. cit., pp. 74–75.
12 Michael Blake, ‘Dating the Initial Spread of Zea Mays’, in Staller et al. (editors), Op. cit., p. 60.
13 Bruce Benz et
al., ‘The Antiquity, Biogeography and Culture History of Maize in the Americas’, in Staller et al, (editors), Op. cit., p. 667.
14 Benz et al., ‘El Riego and Early Maize . . . ’, Op. cit., pp. 68–69.
15 Ibid.
16 Benz et al., ‘The Antiquity, Biogeography and Culture History of Maize . . .’, Op. cit., p. 671.
17 Sergio J. Chávez et al., ‘Early Maize on the Copocabana Peninsula: Implications for the archaeology of the Lake Titicaca Basin’, in Staller et al. (editors), Op. cit., p. 426.
18 Christine H. Hastorf et al., ‘The Movements of Maize into Middle Horizon Tiwanaku, Bolivia’, in Staller et al. (editors), Op. cit., p. 431.
19 Henry P. Schwarcz, ‘Stable Carbon Isotope Analysis and Human Diet: A Synthesis’, in Staller et al. (editors), Op. cit., p. 319.
20 John E. Staller, ‘The Social, Symbolic and Economic Significance of Zea Mays L. in the Late Horizon period’, in Staller et al. (editors), Op. cit., p. 449.
21 Ibid, p. 452; and see p. 454 for elaborate chichi rituals.
22 Nicholas A. Hopkins, ‘The Place of Maize in Indigenous Mesoamerican Folk Taxonomies’, chapter 44 of Staller et al. (editors), Op. cit.; and Jane H. Hill, ‘The Historical Linguistics of Maize Cultivation in Mesoamerica and North America’, chapter 46 of Staller et al. (editors), Op. cit.
23 Robert L. Rankin, ‘Siouan Tribal Contacts and Dispersions Evidenced in the Terminology for Maize and Other Cultigens’, chapter 41 of Staller et al. (editors), Op. cit.
24 William E. Doolittle et al., ‘Environmental Mosaics, Agricultural Diversity, and the Evolutionary Adoption of Maize in the American Southwest’, in Staller et al. (editors), Op. cit,pp. 109ff.
25 Thomas P. Myers, ‘Hominy Technology and the Emergence of Mississippian Societies’, in Staller et al. (editors), Op. cit., p. 515.
26 Brian Stross, ‘Maize in Word and Image in Southeastern Mesoamerica’, in Staller et al. (editors), Op. cit., p. 584.
27 Stross, Op. cit., p. 585.
28 Ibid, p. 587.
29 Gordon Brotherston, Book of the Fourth World, Op. cit., p. 139.
CHAPTER 12: THE PSYCHOACTIVE RAINFOREST AND THE ANOMALOUS DISTRIBUTION OF HALLUCINOGENS
1 Peter T. Furst, Hallucinogens and Culture, Novato, CA: Chandler & Sharp, 1976/1988, p. 2.
2 Furst, Op. cit., p. 3.
3 Ibid, p. 6.
4 Ibid.
5 Ibid, p. 8.
6 Ibid.
7 Ibid, p. 9. See also the paintings and drawings in: Thomas Donaldson, The George Catlin Indian Gallery in the U.S. Museum, Annual Report of the Smithsonian Museum for 1885. Washington DC: US Government Printing Office, 1886.